Economic dimension of the collapse of the ‘false cod’ Epinephelus aeneus in a context of ineffective management of the small-scale fisheries in Senegal

Small-scale fisheries are often seen as a solution for ensuring sustainability in marine exploitation. They are viewed as a suitable alternative to industrial fisheries, particularly when considering their social and economic importance in developing countries. Here, we show that the booming small-scale fishery sector in Senegal, in the context of increasing foreign demand, has induced the collapse of one of the most emblematic West African marine fish species, a large grouper Epinephelus aeneus, historically called ‘false cod’ by European fishers. The overexploitation of this species appears to be on account of the increasing effort sustained by a growing international demand and important subsidies, which resulted in a relative stability of the average economic yield per fishing trip and an incentive for continuing targeting this species to almost extinction. It is a critical time for addressing and mitigating the pressure of the small-scale fisheries to prevent declines of fish species that are highly valued by northern markets. A balance between conservation and exploitation is necessary to maintain ecological viability while considering the socio-economic importance of the small-scale fisheries. However, a new strategy is needed for conservation that will consider and articulate simultaneously the concerns regarding unmanaged and growing small-scale fisheries, rampant subsidies and increasing foreign demand.     

Market-oriented regional fisheries management—an analysis of four fish regions in the North Atlantic

What influence do exchange methods have on ex-vessel prices and what are the potential implications for the regional management of the fisheries? This paper undertakes an empirical analysis of exchange methods and ex-vessel prices for specific demersal fish controlled for fish size and quantity in four North Atlantic regions, including Iceland, North-Norway and Scotland. The methodology consists of a comparative analysis of total average price (TAP) and Anova analysis of monthly average prices of cod and plaice landed fresh during the period 1990–1999. Scotland's auctions have the highest TAPs for the species analysed whilst the lowest TAPs are returned from contract sales in Iceland and North-Norway. Icelandic auctions and Møre–Romsdal auctions adopt intermediate positions in this price hierarchy. Price differences are still present even when correcting for factors such as legal barriers, transport costs from different geographical locations, exchange fees and seasonal variations in supplies. The implications of these findings for current and prospective systems of regional resource and coastal management are then considered and the scope and need for further study is established.     

The economic importance of the Icelandic fisheries cluster—Understanding the role of fisheries in a small economy

Expansion and development of the fisheries sector was the driving force behind Iceland’s economic transformation during the 20th century. However, the role of fisheries in national and regional economies is neither well documented nor understood. National accounts do not fully reflect the significant part played by the fisheries as they do not take into consideration the various ways economic activity in the fisheries sector affects other branches of the economy. The fisheries sector, which includes fishing and fish processing, has been established as a base industry within the Icelandic economy. Using data collected during 2010 and 2011 and cluster analysis techniques, this paper seeks to establish the economic importance of the fishing industry in Iceland. As a base industry, this paper finds that a wide range of companies have gradually developed to service the sector and through these interlinkages, the fisheries sector and its related operations can be viewed as an industry cluster.     

Will regionalisation improve fisheries management in the EU? An analysis of the Swedish eel management plan reflects difficulties

In response to the shortcomings of the EU's Common Fisheries Policy, the European Commission has suggested regionalising fisheries management. Examples already exist of the more decentralised management of certain fisheries. Since 2007, the Commission has requested national eel management plans (EMPs) from all EU eel-fishing nations, giving national management bodies considerable freedom to develop their own EMPs. To examine the prerequisites for decentralisation, the Swedish EMP was chosen as a case. The European eel is critically endangered due to overfishing and environmental degradation. Analysis of the Swedish EMP reveals serious flaws: the conflict between the objectives of species and fishery preservation has not been clarified nor is the prioritisation clear. The plan has not been critically reviewed and alternative options are not considered. Though the basic data are uncertain, this uncertainty is viewed as support for not adopting any safety margin. Management is therefore directed towards mitigating the negative effects of fishing and other human activities rather than realising the conservation objective. The efficiency of the various protection measures is also disputable; for example, translocation is problematic, as translocated (i.e., stocked) eels display impaired navigational abilities. Another problematic aspect of this conservation strategy is the slow implementation of the EMP. In conclusion, this study emphasises the necessity of legal and social science as well as natural science research to evaluate the efficiency and implementation of fishery management.     

Review of indicators in fisheries management – a development perspective

A review of indicators for an ecosystem approach to fisheries management is presented, focusing on multispecies fisheries and limited resources for assessments and implementation, as often is the case in developing countries. Emphasizing the need to link indicators to management objectives, indicators from the literature are grouped into four categories, relating to the immediate fisheries resource base (single-species and multispecies indicators) and the wider ecosystem (habitat structure and ecosystem functioning). The usefulness of these indicators is assessed along three dimensions of acceptability among stakeholders, observability, and relation to fisheries management using a traffic light approach. The top ranking indicators are highlighted as a generally good start for any particular fishery management case. It is, however, argued that, even with similar management objectives, indicators need to be specific to both ecosystems and the institutional set-up if they are to be effective for management, and that indicators may consequently differ considerably between individual management applications.     

The gentleman’s agreements: a fisheries management case study from the Southwest of England

This paper assesses the unique ‘gentlemen’s agreements’ that exist between the crab fishermen of South Devon and trawlermen from the UK and other EU member states. The reasons for the success of the arrangements are discussed, particularly as the agreements apply to fisheries that are currently characterised by over-capacity, rent dissipation and non-compliance with regulations. The agreements are analysed in relation to other common-property resource-management systems, and their compatability with the principles of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is established. Finally the agreements are compared and contrasted with the concepts of subsidiarity and co-management.     

Social–ecological feedback links for ecosystem management: a case study of fisheries in the Central Baltic Sea archipelago

In this paper, we address the implications of changing social-ecological feedback links for a sustainable management of coastal regions applying an ecosystem management perspective. This case study focuses on user patterns of fish resources in the Central Baltic Sea archipelago consisting of three sub-regions: Stockholm archipelago, Sweden, the Åland islands and the archipelago of SW Finland. The transition from a region, mainly relying on a mixture of local natural resources towards a region more dominated by the recreational demands of nearby large urban areas, has altered user patterns of fish resources. This transition has partly followed different pathways in the three sub-regions depending on how socio-economic driving forces have been manifested in management actions. Nevertheless, functioning ecosystems are still the basis for the delivery of ecosystem services and a living archipelago system. The significance of capturing and (re)building feedback links into management regarding knowledge on ecosystem services for a sustainable ecosystem management is discussed.     

Corporate-cooperative management of fisheries: A potential alternative governance structure for low value small fisheries?

While the economic and environmental benefits of fisheries management are well accepted, the costs of effective management in low value fisheries, including the research necessary to underpin such management, may be considerable relative to the total economic benefits they may generate. Co-management is often seen as a panacea in low value fisheries. Increasing fisher participation increases legitimacy of management decision in the absence of detailed scientific input. However, where only a small number of operators exist, the potential benefits of co-management are negated by the high transaction cost to the individual fishers engaging in the management process. From an economic perspective, sole ownership has been identified as the management structure which can best achieve biological and economic sustainability. Moving low value fisheries with a small number of participants to a corporate-cooperative management model may come close to achieving these sole ownership benefits, with lower transaction costs. In this paper we look at the applicability of different management models with industry involvement to low value fisheries with a small number of participants. We provide an illustration as to how a fishery could be transitioned to a corporate-cooperative management model that captures the key benefits of sole management at a low cost and is consistent with societal objectives.     

Community-based management of near-shore fisheries in Vanuatu: What works?

In the Pacific, coastal communities have compensated for chronically low capacity of governments to manage fisheries by implementing local regulations in their marine tenure areas. In order to investigate the performance of community-based fisheries management (CBFM) in Vanuatu, trajectories and factors of change in CBFM systems since the 1990s were analysed. Focal group interviews were conducted in seven villages on Efaté island in 2011 and supplemented by a review of supporting literature. Results reveal the increasing and excessive reliance of CBFM systems on external agencies that promoted overly complex management plans. Examination of trends in CBFM systems shows that community and national fishing rules that were highly acceptable by local societies were more likely to be enforced in the long run. In particular, the establishment of marine reserves was the most widespread and best enforced community rule for the purposes of conservation, ecotourism, and/or fisheries. Overall, the results challenge the current effectiveness of CBFM in achieving sustainability of reef fisheries in Vanuatu, and highlight the over-reliance on small marine reserves as a management tool. Community initiatives must be strengthened by new specific national regulations governing subsistence and commercial reef fisheries as part of a multi-scale co-management approach.     

A requiem for the IFQ in US fisheries?

Despite their apparent economic benefits to harvesters, individual fishing quotas (IFQs) have only been adopted in three US fisheries: Mid-Atlantic surf clam and ocean quahog; South Atlantic wreckfish; and, North Pacific halibut and sablefish. During the 1996 reauthorization of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, Congress temporarily blocked implementation of additional IFQ programs in US fisheries. In this paper, we argue that because of the emergence of an alternative, the cooperative, it is unlikely that new IFQs will be adopted in federally managed US fisheries. From an economic perspective, cooperatives offer the advantage of eliminating production externalities that may remain under an IFQ program with relatively large owner classes. More significantly, development of IFQ programs appears to be increasingly overwhelmed by the proliferation of both equity concerns and seemingly interminable rent-seeking behavior — both issues that can effectively block adoption of IFQs. Ironically (and paradoxically?), by reducing the scope of the equity issues acknowledged, the cooperative alternative narrows the pool of claimants and modifies the behavior of the remainder, making implementation more likely. A further irony exists in that IFQs are widely thought to be best designed at the local/regional level while part of the appeal of the cooperative model is that it appears to shortcut the often protracted nature of the local/regional political process by relying on direct intervention from Washington, DC, in the form of actions by Congress or the Justice Department.     

Gear liberalization in the Northeast Arctic cod fisheries – Implications for sustainability,efficiency and legitimacy

In Norwegian fisheries policy, strict gear regulation is a central instrument actively used to achieve fisheries political objectives. Gear regulations are locked in rigid regulative structures that limit the actors׳ ability to adapt practices to changing conditions. This article shows that gear liberalization could take place within the framework of sustainable resource harvest, while also contributing to improved economic efficiency and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Institutions, such as gear regulations, do not exist in a vacuum, but are linked to other institutional structures. Hence, within a framework of sustainability, the relaxation of one regulation may induce new regulations and institutions.     

A study on the exchange additivity of zinc in solid mixtures in seawater——Ⅲ. Stepwise isotherms of the mixture

Zinc exchange isotherms in mixtures of hydrous metal oxides and clay minerals have been reported. The relationship between the isotherms of the mixtures and the isotherms of their components is studied. The isotherms of the mixtures are stepwise. And the formation constants for the zinc exchange in the mixtures are calculated. The results show that the stepwise equilibrium formation constants and the saturation exchange capacities for the zinc exchange in kaolinite/ mon-tmorrillonite, amorphous iron oxide/montmorrillonite and γ-AlOOH/montmorrillonite mixtures are equal in weight to those of their components. The interactions between fresh iron oxyhydroxide and δ-MnOz reduce the metal binding sites of the mixtures, while the stepwise equilibrium constants are not affected by the interactions.     

A study of ecology of Chaetognaths in the Western Taiwan Strait

This study is based on 172 planktonic samples collected by vertical hauls of planktonic net from the bottom to the surface in the Western Taiwan Strait (116°40′～120°30′E, 22°22′. 9～26°43′N) in four seasonal months from May 1984 to February 1985.     

What is the ecosystem approach for fisheries management?

The ecosystem approach for fisheries management is a widely accepted concept and various international instruments require its application. However, there are various interpretations of the ecosystem approach and its application almost always brings about confrontations and resistance among managers, proponents, and stakeholders. This paper categorizes the ecosystem approach into four distinguishable types: bycatch mitigation, multi-species management, protection of vulnerable ecosystems, and integrated approach. Furthermore, the lack of identification and understanding of specific management goals is hampering the application of the ecosystem approach. Unless the stakeholders understand and accept the goals, the ecosystem approach will not succeed.     

A study on the exchange additivity of zinc in solid mixtures in seawater——Ⅰ. Exchange additivity of mixtures

-Exchange additivity of binary mixtures of hydrous metal oxides and clay minerals has been studied by investigating the relations of the zinc exchange-pH and the zinc partition coefficients to mixtures. The additive exchange equation is proposed to describe the exchange-pH relationship. The results suggest that zinc exchanges on the components in amorphous iron oxide/montmorrillonite, kaolinite/montmorrillonite, γ-A100H/montmorrillonite, amorphous iron oxide/illite mixtures are additive. But the exchange ofδ-MnO2/montmorrillonite is much less than its additive exchange. It is also shown that in the case of additive exchange the exchange parameters (Kmix{SOH}Tmix) of the mixtures are equal in weight to the sum of those of each component of the solid mixtures.     

A theoretical study of the kinetics of the boric acid–borate equilibrium in seawater

Dissolved boron in seawater occurs mainly in the form of boric acid (B(OH)₃) and borate (B(OH)₄⁻). While the equilibrium properties of the dissociation of boric acid have been studied in detail, very little work has focused on the kinetics of the boric acid–borate equilibrium in seawater. Here, we present a theoretical study of the relaxation of the seawater borate–carbonate system towards equilibrium using the experimental data of Mallo et al. [Nouv. J. Chim. 8 (1984) 373] and Waton et al. [J. Phys. Chem. 88 (1984) 3301]. The reaction rate constants are two to four orders of magnitude smaller than typical rate constants of diffusion-controlled reactions of other acid–base equilibria. This is presumably due to the substantial structural change that is involved in the conversion from planar B(OH)₃ to tetrahedral B(OH)₄. The time required to establish the boric acid–borate equilibrium in seawater is calculated to be ∼95μs at temperature T=25°C and salinity S=35. Considering stable boron isotopes ¹¹B and ¹⁰B, the isotopic equilibration time is ∼125 μs. As a result, kinetic isotope effects during coprecipitation of boron in calcium carbonate are unlikely and therefore do not affect the use of stable boron isotopes as a paleo-pH recorder.     

Is there the will to manage fisheries at a local level in the European Union? A case study from Shetland

The failure of the command and control approach to fisheries management has encouraged governments to look for new ways of balancing the requirement to conserve fish stocks and yet maintain a flow of benefits that will meet economic and social targets. In the quest to establish a system for sustaining production in the Common Pond, the European Union (EU) has begun to investigate alternatives to the current management system. This research paper examines the problems associated with the current management regime operating in the EU in the light of alternatives for managing the fisheries. The research seeks to establish whether, given the serious problems confronting the EU's fishing industries, fishermen would be prepared to accept change and offer their ideas and support to develop an alternative management system. The research draws on the opinions of fishermen from Shetland and discusses the findings gained from interviewing key informants in conjunction with the results of an opinion survey of skippers and boat owners.     

Who benefits from fisheries co-management? A case study in Lake Chiuta,Malawi

The fisheries management policy shift towards resource user participation in Malawi in the early 1990s resulted in mixed benefits among small-scale fishers, with many applauding the changes. This paper considers the impacts of these policy changes on government and within the fishing communities around Lake Chiuta whose fisheries co-management experience is considered successful. Benefits to the communities range from gaining government support in excluding non-local fishers using destructive fishing gear to increased household incomes and improved livelihoods, while benefits to government range from taking credit for establishing a sustainable fishery and co-management arrangements to reduced resource management costs. Community costs include financial resources and time spent by resource user representative organisations in enforcing fishing regulations. These findings enable a more balanced assessment of neoliberal claims about the benefits of delegating management responsibilities and downloading costs of management onto fishing communities and organisations.     

Towards ecosystem-based fisheries management in Norway – Practical tools for keeping track of relevant issues and prioritising management efforts

The present paper presents the practical implementation of the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM) in Norway. This involves defining management objectives and developing simple and efficient tools to achieve an overview of management needs and prioritise among these, while integrating broader conservation issues and ensuring stakeholder involvement. A new Marine Resources Act entered into force in Norway in 2009. By integrating conservation and sustainable use as basic principles, the law represents a paradigm shift in the management of Norwegian fisheries. The law indicates which concerns should be addressed, but neither how nor how often evaluations should take place. That is for management to decide. A management principle in the Marine Resources Act confers on the Ministry an obligation to evaluate whether continued fishing at the present scale is justifiable, or whether improved management is required to ensure sustainability. A Stock table, and a table of "Catches of data-poor species" constitute a comprehensive system for monitoring the management principle. Along with a Fisheries table, these tables establish a framework for developing an ecosystem-based fisheries management by providing a basis and tools for prioritising the needs of new and/or revised management measures.     

The added value of participatory modelling in fisheries management – what has been learnt?

How can uncertain fisheries science be linked with good governance processes, thereby increasing fisheries management legitimacy and effectiveness? Reducing the uncertainties around scientific models has long been perceived as the cure of the fisheries management problem. There is however increasing recognition that uncertainty in the numbers will remain. A lack of transparency with respect to these uncertainties can damage the credibility of science. The EU Commission's proposal for a reformed Common Fisheries Policy calls for more self-management for the fishing industry by increasing fishers' involvement in the planning and execution of policies and boosting the role of fishers' organisations. One way of higher transparency and improved participation is to include stakeholders in the modelling process itself. The JAKFISH project (Judgment And Knowledge in Fisheries Involving StakeHolders) invited fisheries stakeholders to participate in the process of framing the management problem, and to give input and evaluate the scientific models that are used to provide fisheries management advice. JAKFISH investigated various tools to assess and communicate uncertainty around fish stock assessments and fisheries management. Here, a synthesis is presented of the participatory work carried out in four European fishery case studies (Western Baltic herring, North Sea Nephrops, Central Baltic Herring and Mediterranean swordfish), focussing on the uncertainty tools used, the stakeholders' responses to these, and the lessons learnt. It is concluded that participatory modelling has the potential to facilitate and structure discussions between scientists and stakeholders about uncertainties and the quality of the knowledge base. It can also contribute to collective learning, increase legitimacy, and advance scientific understanding. However, when approaching real-life situations, modelling should not be seen as the priority objective. Rather, the crucial step in a science–stakeholder collaboration is the joint problem framing in an open, transparent way.