Accounting for carbon dioxide emissions from international shipping: Burden sharing under different UNFCCC allocation options and regime scenarios

CO₂ emissions from international shipping, which are currently unregulated, are predicted to rise dramatically if no regulations are implemented. International bunker fuel emissions have been excluded from the Kyoto Protocol; the UNFCCC conference in Copenhagen also failed to bring about clear directions on how to proceed with these emissions.     

Reducing fishing vessel fuel consumption and NOX emissions

There is a growing concern with the impact of marine operations on the environment. This requires reducing fuel consumption and vessel pollution during operation. On-board computers and satellite communications will enable the operator to reduce fuel consumption and NO_X emissions during vessel operations.This paper presents the results of a study on this problem and how such an on-board system could be implemented to reduce fuel consumption and engine NO_X emissions.     

Harnessing the wind: A case study of applying Flettner rotor technology to achieve fuel and cost savings for Fiji's domestic shipping industry

For over 5000 years, humans have successfully harnessed the power of wind to transport people and goods across the world's oceans. This research expands on previous studies of the unique Flettner rotor propulsion system and the demonstrable success in reducing fuel consumption and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. Recent examples such as Enercon's E-ship 1 have proven seaworthy and economically viable along major shipping routes. The remote Pacific island countries (PICS), however, have the unique characteristics of retaining a remarkable seafaring heritage while remaining on the periphery of global commerce. With data obtained from a field study of Fiji's domestic shipping, this research analyzes the potential for implementing Flettner rotor systems to achieve more economically viable alternatives to the current situation. The findings show that with an incremental approach and the addition of a government fuel savings incentive, the Government Shipping Franchise Scheme (GSFS) subsidies could be significantly lowered for Fiji's ten uneconomical shipping routes. Four scenarios of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 25% fuel savings contrast the baseline data on one extreme with a zero-emissions scenario on the other. The most likely fuel savings scenario of between 10% and 15% results in a 20-year government savings of between 348,042 and 522,063 U.S. dollars and a 20-year cumulative reduction in CO₂ emissions of between 2931 and 4396 t. The paper concludes that Flettner rotors show promising results in reducing fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions and recommends future studies in collaboration with the Fiji government to develop practical strategies of implementation.     

Slow steaming and a new dawn for wind propulsion: A multi-level analysis of two low carbon shipping transitions

The key enabler of international trade, shipping is heavily reliant on fossil fuels and responsible for approximately 2% of global carbon emissions. For the sector to reduce its emissions in line with climate change objectives, a wholesale transition is required from the current carbon intensive shipping system to one with a lower climatic impact. Drawing on the multi-level perspective from the socio-technical transitions literature, this paper focuses on two technological developments which could reduce the emissions from shipping – slow steaming and wind propulsion. Outlining the landscape changes which may hinder or support the incorporation of each of these innovations into the broader shipping regime the paper shows how slow steaming has been accommodated within this regime, in response to high oil prices and the economic downturn. In the longer term it concludes that additional policy measures may be required to ensure slow steaming persists should landscape pressures reduce. Oil prices, and the environmental agenda, are driving the development of wind propulsion, but more needs to be done to support those companies which seek to demonstrate and commercialise modern incarnations of the original pioneers of the seas.     

Environmental policies and marine engines—effects on the development and adoption of innovations

This study indicates that environmental policy interventions significantly influence the innovation processes for reducing the emissions of marine engine technology. Several different types of interventions have been important and the effect is not directly proportional to the strength or spatial coverage of the intervention. Despite its relative weakness, the MARPOL rule on NO_x emissions has contributed to technology development. We also show that the rise of environmental issues in other fields has had a marked effect on the development of the marine sector and that relatively local interventions can influence innovation even in an international sector like marine transport.     

Planning for offshore CO2 storage: Law and policy in the United Kingdom

‘Offshore CO₂ storage’ refers to the injection of liquefied CO₂ into deep geological formations beneath the seabed (e.g. depleted oil and gas reservoirs, and saline aquifers) for the purpose of storing it there on a permanent basis. The storage in this manner of captured CO₂ emissions from industrial installations and power plants has attracted considerable scientific and technical interest as a potential mitigation response to climate change. A key issue facing policymakers in several countries is how to reconcile policy commitments to develop offshore CO₂ storage with other competing – and potentially conflicting – uses of the marine environment. With a view to informing policy responses to this issue, this paper presents a case study of legal and policy frameworks concerning offshore CO₂ storage in United Kingdom. The paper maps key design features of the United Kingdom׳s framework for marine permitting and planning, appraising the extent to which they enable orderly development of offshore CO₂ storage in a manner consistent with relevant high-level policy objectives.     

Fuel use and greenhouse gas emission implications of fisheries management: the case of the new england atlantic herring fishery

Commercial fisheries are heavily dependent upon the combustion of fossil fuels and as such contribute to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and the concomitant impact on the world's climate. The fuel use and greenhouse gas intensity of a fishery is a function of several variables. One that has not been previously investigated is the role of fisheries management. Using historical gear-specific fuel use and landings data, we employ scenarios to examine the potential impact that recent changes in the management of the New England fishery for Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) may have on fishery-related fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions. Specifically, we consider the direct effect of the seasonal ban of midwater trawling in favor of purse seine and fixed gears within Atlantic herring fishing Area 1A. We also evaluate the indirect effect of reductions to the Area 1A total allowable catch of Atlantic herring on the regional supply of bait and the resulting potential need to import bait herring from Canada. Our results indicate that because of the five-fold lower fuel intensity of purse seining, relative to midwater trawling (21 L/ton versus 108-118 L/ton), the seasonal ban on midwater trawling has the potential to markedly reduce overall fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the herring fishery. These results indicate that management decisions can strongly influence energy demands and resulting greenhouse gas emissions of fisheries. We urge those involved with fisheries management to take this into account when developing policy and management measures.     

The relationship between EU's public procurement policies and energy efficiency of ferries in the EU

The European ferry sector is the largest ferry sector globally and one of the key environmental issues facing the sector is the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. This paper provides an analysis of how the EU ferry procurement policies lead to lack of implementation of energy efficiency measures, contrary to the EU's key objective of reducing CO₂ emissions in ferries within the EU region. This paper is the first analysis to examine the public–private sector interaction in transport and how this leads to a lack of implementation of energy efficiency measures. Analysing the sector using agency theory suggests that split incentives are pervasive and can stymie attempts to improve the energy efficiency of ferry services in the procurement of ferries. The findings suggest that there is a need to review current ferry procurement policies with a view to devising procurement policies that can address the split incentives, as well as other policies, that are outside the scope of procurement policies, which can be used to minimise the split incentives.     

Community-based governance of coastal zone and marine resources in Madagascar

On account of the “legal transplant” of French civil law into traditional customary law in Madagascar, the traditional social code generally known as “Dina” has coexisted with the modern law since the pre-colonial era and has conditioned the implementation of such law. The concept and use of Dina has been influenced by that process.This paper illustrates the role of Dina as a mechanism for reconciling modern decentralized and traditional governance of marine resources and the coastal zones in Madagascar. Democratic participation is important for enforcing the regulations governing marine resources and coastal zones. As law should be the will of people themselves, it is therefore necessary to develop legislation in community forum such as through Dina. It is especially critical that regulations be imbued with community aspiration and culture so that the population can respect laws freely.The three cases cited in this paper illustrate the different ways in which Dina may be used depending on the interests of the actors. Integrating the ‘legal’ and the ‘legitimate’ is a big challenge. In some cases, this legal mechanism is not successful at protecting local community or fishermen rights. Given the potential for integrated coastal zone management and community-based management, Dina may be strengthened in order to more effectively protect local people's rights.     

Pelagic longline fisheries in southeastern/south Brazil. Who cares about the law?

The fishing industry has been facing problems related to catch yields, predatory competition and economic collapse. Management should be based on substantial scientific studies and the state's ability to implement these. In Brazil, the surface longline fishery has been in existence since the 1950s, and remains of great economic importance. This study analyzes 179 legal instruments (1934–2014), divided into restrictive, administrative and promotional, comparing with catches landed (1996–2011). The results show that there was a complete disrespect for the regulations, wherein fleets continued landing prohibited or size limited species, such as Kajikia albida, Makaira nigricans, Alopias superciliosus, A. vulpinus, Carcharhinus longimanus, Galeorhinus galeus and Xiphias gladius. Furthermore, divergent regulatory provisions have hindered understanding/implementation of regulations by all those involved. Being a country of continental proportions and with different longline fisheries along the coast, conducting scientific studies and the development of normative approaches becomes a huge challenge. In a dynamic activity such as fishing, the constant review of these regulations will allow fisheries management to become more accurate and in accordance with the aspirations of the different interests involved. Despite the surface longline fishery having operated for 60 years in Brazil, the existence of incongruous laws makes the management and control of this activity incompatible with the conservation of species. The lack of regulations governing this fishery creates a "gap", increasing the risk of extinction of species (target and bycatch) and the future collapse of this activity.     

Effects of a submarine eruption on the performance of two brown seaweeds

World oceans are becoming more acidic as a consequence of CO₂ anthropogenic emissions, with multiple physiological and ecological implications. So far, our understanding is mainly limited to some species through in vitro experimentation. In this study, we took advantage of a recent submarine eruption (from October 2011 to March 2012) at ~ 1 nautical mile offshore El Hierro Island (Canary Islands, central east Atlantic) to determine whether altered physical–chemical conditions, mainly sudden natural ocean acidification, affected the morphology, photosynthesis (in situ Chl-a fluorescence) and physiological performance (photo-protective mechanisms and oxidative stress) of the conspicuous brown seaweeds Padina pavonica—a species with carbonate deposition – and Lobophora variegata—a species without carbonate on thallus surfaces – , both with similar morphology. Seaweeds were sampled twice: November 2011 (eruptive phase with a pH drop of ca. 1.22 units relative to standard conditions) and March 2012 (post-eruptive phase with a pH of ca. 8.23), on two intertidal locations adjacent to the eruption and at a control location. P. pavonica showed decalcification and loss of photo-protective compounds and antioxidant activity at locations affected by the eruption, behaving as a sun-adapted species during lowered pH conditions. At the same time, L. variegata suffered a decrease in photo-protective compounds and antioxidant activity during the volcanic event, but its photosynthetic performance remained unaltered. These results reinforce the idea that calcareous seaweeds, as a whole, are more sensitive than non-calcareous seaweeds to alter their performance under scenarios of reduced pH.     

The effects of sodium sulfate on the emissions characteristics of an emulsified marine diesel oil-fired furnace

Degraded diesel oils are commonly used in marine power plants to conform to the demands of shipowners for fuel economy. The burning of these marine fuel oils, which frequently contain various extents of oxides of iron, silicon, calcium, vanadium and potassium, such as Na₂SO₄, Fe₂O₃, SiO₂, CaO, V₂O₅, etc., are susceptible to form much more complex compounds of either gaseous or solid phases. The release of these emissions to the environment may cause atmospheric pollution and a health hazard to human beings. Emulsification of a fuel oil with water to produce a micro-water-particles-dispersed-in-oil (W/O) emulsion has been considered as one of the promising techniques to improve combustion characteristics of low-grade marine oils and in turn effectively help to reduce the release of air pollutants. Marine fuel oil A, which approximates ASTM No. 2D oil was used as the test oil and the surfactant Span 80 was used to promote the affinity and integrating force between the components of the emulsion. An emulsifying/homogenizing machine was employed to stir the emulsion mixture of the marine oil, distilled water, surfactant Span 80 and sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) powder of 300 ppm. The mechanically blended emulsion mixture was injected, atomized and burned in an oil-fired furnace using an automatic burner. Burning gas composition, burning efficiency and gas temperature were measured and analyzed. Compared to neat marine diesel oil, W/O emulsions had higher combustion efficiencies, higher concentrations of O₂ and SO₂, while gas temperatures were lowered and CO and NO_x production was reduced. The addition of sodium sulfate decreased combustion efficiency and NO_x concentration and increased O₂, CO, and SO₂ concentrations.     

Potential climate-change impacts on the Chesapeake Bay

We review current understanding of the potential impact of climate change on the Chesapeake Bay. Scenarios for CO₂ emissions indicate that by the end of the 21^st century the Bay region will experience significant changes in climate forcings with respect to historical conditions, including increases in CO₂ concentrations, sea level, and water temperature of 50–160%, 0.7–1.6 m, and 2–6 °C, respectively. Also likely are increases in precipitation amount (very likely in the winter and spring), precipitation intensity, intensity of tropical and extratropical cyclones (though their frequency may decrease), and sea-level variability. The greatest uncertainty is associated with changes in annual streamflow, though it is likely that winter and spring flows will increase. Climate change alone will cause the Bay to function very differently in the future. Likely changes include: (1) an increase in coastal flooding and submergence of estuarine wetlands; (2) an increase in salinity variability on many time scales; (3) an increase in harmful algae; (4) an increase in hypoxia; (5) a reduction of eelgrass, the dominant submerged aquatic vegetation in the Bay; and (6) altered interactions among trophic levels, with subtropical fish and shellfish species ultimately being favored in the Bay. The magnitude of these changes is sensitive to the CO₂ emission trajectory, so that actions taken now to reduce CO₂ emissions will reduce climate impacts on the Bay. Research needs include improved precipitation and streamflow projections for the Bay watershed and whole-system monitoring, modeling, and process studies that can capture the likely non-linear responses of the Chesapeake Bay system to climate variability, climate change, and their interaction with other anthropogenic stressors.     

Cost-benefit evaluation of using biodiesel as an alternative fuel for fishing boats in Taiwan

Biodiesel, which is manufactured from vegetables oils, animal fats, or algae can be an excellent alternative fuel to petroleum diesel due to its superior fuel properties and lower pollutant emissions. In contrast, fishing-boat fuel generally has much poorer fuel properties and a high sulfur content that can reach several hundred times that of the premium diesel used in land-based vehicles. Pollutant emissions from fishing boats are known to be a significant source of air pollution in the global environment. This study examines the use of biodiesel to replace fishing-boat fuel A to reduce pollutant emissions from fishing boats. The incremental cost, reduction in emissions, and cost-benefit corresponding to various weight proportions of biodiesel to replace fishing-boat fuel A are evaluated. The results show that the annual consumption of fishing-boat fuel A by Taiwanese fishing boats amounts to 649,201 kiloliters (kl) and total emissions from burning the fuel is 958.93 tons per year. If all fishing-boat fuel A were replaced with biodiesel, then pollutant emissions would be decreased by 421.94 tons, or 44.0%. However, this would also result in a USD 144.45 million or 25.85% increase in fuel cost. This study also finds that a replacing 20 wt% of fishing-boat fuel A with biodiesel has the highest cost-benefit ratio, which implies a larger reduction in emissions with a lower fuel cost increase, and is the most suitable option for fishing boats in Taiwan.     

Impact of macroalgal dredging on dystrophic crises and phototrophic bacterial blooms (red waters) in a brackish coastal lagoon

The Prévost lagoon (Mediterranean coast, France), was subject to annual dystrophic crises caused by the biodegradation of opportunistic macroalgae (Ulva lactuca) in the past. These crises result in anoxic waters with subsequent blooms of Purple Sulphur Bacteria (red waters) which, by oxidizing sulphide, contribute to the reestablishment of oxic conditions in the water column. Mechanical dredging of the macroalgal biomass has been carried out in the lagoon since 1991 with the aim of preventing the ecological and economic disturbances caused by such crises. Dredging began just before the phototrophic bloom when the water was already hypoxic (O₂ = 0.7 mg·L⁻¹) and contained sulphilde (H₂S = 7.3 mg·L⁻¹) and purple patches of phototrophic bacteria (Thiocapsa sp.) that were beginning to develop on decaying macroalgae at the sediment surface. The dredging prevented red water formation and drastically modified both phototrophic community structure and activity and biogeochemical sulphur cycling. The dredging permitted the reestablishment of oxic conditions for a short period only (1–13 August). Resuspension of the superficial sediment layers disturbed the phototrophic bacterial community, whose numbers decreased by one order of magnitude (from 2 × 10⁶ to 3.9 × 10⁵ CFU.mL⁻¹). The phototrophic community was no longer effective in reoxidizing the reduced sulphur compounds remaining in the sediments, as shown by a drastic sulphate depletion in the superficial sediment layers. Moreover, the increase in the specific bacteriochlorophyll a concentration of the phototrophic purple bacteria and the rapid development of Green Sulphur Bacteria (Prosthecochloris-like microorganisms) indicated that the phototrophic community was growing under severe light-limiting conditions due to the resuspension of sediment particles in the water. These conditions did not allow the phototrophic bacterial community to efficiently reoxidize the reduced sulphur compounds originating from the sediments. In consequence, hypoxic conditions (O₂ = 4.7 to 4.8 mg·L⁻¹) and low sulphide concentrations (H₂S = 0.4 to 0.7 mg·L⁻¹) were detected in the water column until September. The ecological balance in the lagoon was reestablished only in October, whereas, in previous years it had been restored in August.     

Bottom-up control of phytoplankton growth in spring blooms in Central Yellow Sea,China

The source and significance of three nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorous and silicon – were investigated by a modified dilution method performed on seawater samples from the Central Yellow Sea (CYS), in spring blooming period of 2007. This modified dilution method accounted for the phytoplankton growth rate, microzooplankton grazing mortality rate, the internal and external nutrient pools, as well as nutrients supplied through remineralization by microzooplankton grazing. The results indicate that phytoplankton growth during the bloom is mostly contributed by internal nutrient pools (K_I=0.062–1.730). The external nutrient pools (K_E=<0–0.362) are also of importance for phytoplankton growth during the bloom at some sampling sites. Furthermore, the contribution of the recycled-nutrient pool by remineralization (K_R=<0–0.751) is significant when microzooplankton grazing rate was higher than 0.5 d⁻¹ during the spring phytoplankton blooms in the Central Yellow Sea. Compared with internal phosphorus, internal nitrogen and silicon contribute more to the phytoplankton production at most sampling stations.     

The isotopic mass balance of sulphur in oceanic sediments (the Pacific Ocean as an example)

Dissimilatory sulphate reduction is the main biogeochemical reaction responsible for the cycle of sulphur and its isotopic composition in modern oceanic sediments. The maximal intensity of this process, measured with the help of radioactive isotopes, is typical of sediments in the peripheral regions of the ocean to a depth of 1000 m and makes up 10–60 μg S/kg wet silt/day.The minimal enrichment with ³²S of the buried, reduced sulphur and the maximal accumulation of heavy isotopes in sulphate sulphur of pore waters are observed under conditions of the most intensive biogeochemical processes. Further away from continents the intensity of bacterial sulphate reduction diminishes to a fraction of 1 μg S/kg wet silt/day, the reduced sulphur becomes enriched in ³²S (up to ? 50.0‰), and the isotope composition of sulphate sulphur in pore waters approximates that in oceanic water and the solid phases of sediments.The amount of reduced sulphur in the total sulphur buried in modern sediments of the Pacific Ocean is twice the amount of sulphate sulphur. The δ³⁴S value of the total sulphur buried and removed from the cycle makes up ? 17.9‰. This value is comparable to that of the average isotope composition of total sulphur in clay rocks of the lithosphere.     

Reduction of particulate matter and gaseous emission from marine diesel engines using a catalyzed particulate filter

Diesel engines are used widely as the power sources of coastal ships and international vessels primarily due to their high thermal efficiency, high fuel economy and durable performance. However, the gaseous and solid substances exhausted from diesel engines during the combustion process cause air pollution, in particular around harbor regions. In order to effectively reduce particulate matter and gaseous pollution emissions, a catalyzed particulate filter was equipped in the tail pipe of a marine diesel engine. The engine's performance and emission characteristics under various engine speeds and torques were measured using a computerized engine data control and acquisition system accompanied with an engine dynamometer. The effectiveness of installing a catalyzed particulate filter on the reduction of pollutant emissions was examined. The experimental results show that the exhaust gas temperature, carbon monoxide and smoke opacity were reduced significantly upon installation of the particulate filter. In particular, larger conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide — and thus larger CO₂ and lower CO emissions — were observed for the marine diesel engine equipped with a catalyzed particulate filter and operated at higher engine speeds. This is presumably due to enhancement of the catalytic oxidation reaction that results from an exhaust gas with stronger stirring motion passing through the filter. The absorption of partial heating energy from the exhaust gas by the physical structure of the particulate filter resulted in a reduction in the exhaust gas temperature. The particulate matter could be burnt to a greater extent due to the effect of the catalyst coated on the surface of the particulate filter. Moreover, the fuel consumption rate was increased slightly while the excess oxygen emission was somewhat decreased with the particulate filter.     

Abatement of air pollution at an aegean island port utilizing shore side electricity and renewable energy

The air pollutant emissions of the ships at port represent a small percentage of the overall emissions from shipping however they are concentrated in a small area. In Mytilene, Lesvos, the port is located within the city limits, resulting in air pollution, congestion and noise, especially during the tourist season. The aim of this study is to estimate the quantities of particulate matter and CO₂ emitted by ships in the port of Mytilene and to explore the potential of shore side electricity to reduce the emissions. The emissions were estimated using the bottom–up methodology, based on the activity of the ships in the port (berthing, maneuvering). Simulation of renewable energy sources was made using Homer Energy microgrid simulation software. The results showed that between the 10th and 20th of August 2012, there were 40 calls of passenger ships, tankers and bulk carriers in the port of Mytilene, emitting 441 kg of PM₁₀ and 282 metric tonnes of CO2. About 63% of PM₁₀ and 77% of CO₂ were emitted at the berthing phase and the remaining during the maneuvering. These emissions could be reduced by providing electricity to the ships from a hybrid renewable energy system with wind turbines and photovoltaics, connected to the grid. Simulations showed that the total energy requirements of the ships in the port of Mytilene could be covered by four 1.5 MW wind turbines combined with a 5 MW photovoltaics. With this configuration, renewable energy will exceed the ships' electricity needs for most of the time in order not to increase the power station's load. The excess energy could be fed to the islands' grid, so a costly battery storage system is not necessary to handle the variations of alternative energy. In this way, a considerable reduction of the CO₂ and PM₁₀ emissions by the ships in the port occurs, providing a viable solution for a cleaner and healthier environment.     

The oxidation state diagram: stability of dissolved sulphur species in seawater

Oxidation state diagrams have been constructed for different sulphur species. Sulphur oxyacids are stressed with respect to their key role in the cycling of inorganic sulphur species, besides sulphides and elemental sulphur. Following the stable sulphate species in seawater, metastable species are S₄O₆²⁻, S₂O₃²⁻ and S⁰. Stability of different species found from these diagrams were compared with the earlier literature. A case study, from Solar Lake (Sinai) is inconcurrent with the results of the present diagrams.