The interaction triangle as a tool for understanding stakeholder interactions in marine ecosystem based management

Expectations about ecosystem based management (EBM) differ due to diverging perspectives about what EBM should be and how it should work. While EBM by its nature requires trade-offs to be made between ecological, economic and social sustainability criteria, the diversity of cross-sectoral perspectives, values, stakes, and the specificity of each individual situation determine the outcome of these trade-offs. The authors strive to raise awareness of the importance of interaction between three stakeholder groups (decision makers, scientists, and other actors) and argue that choosing appropriate degrees of interaction between them in a transparent way can make EBM more effective in terms of the three effectiveness criteria salience, legitimacy, and credibility. This article therefore presents an interaction triangle in which three crucial dimensions of stakeholder interactions are discussed: (A) between decision makers and scientists, who engage in framing to foster salience of scientific input to decision making, (B) between decision makers and other actors, to shape participation processes to foster legitimacy of EBM processes, and (C) between scientists and other actors, who collaborate to foster credibility of knowledge production. Due to the complexity of EBM, there is not one optimal interaction approach; rather, finding the optimal degrees of interaction for each dimension depends on the context in which EBM is implemented, i.e. the EBM objectives, the EBM initiator’s willingness for transparency and interaction, and other context-specific factors, such as resources, trust, and state of knowledge.     

临时海洋倾倒区生态损害评估及补偿标准研究——以温州市旧城改造工程临时性海洋倾倒区为例

沿海地区社会经济快速发展的同时,各种人类活动导致的海洋污染与海洋生态损害日益加剧,海洋生态损害补偿是解决海洋生态损害问题的有效途径之一。本文以温州市旧城改造工程临时性海洋倾倒区为研究对象,利用水质、沉积物、生物等监测数据,基于倾倒活动对海洋生态系统的实际损害程度,构建生态服务价值损害评估体系和生态修复海洋损害评估框架,采用市场价值法、替代成本法、影子工程法、成果参照法等模型计算倾倒活动对海洋生态造成的损害,并确定生态补偿标准。结果表明:(1)基于生态服务价值损害为1 332.61万元,一级损害类型中支持服务价值损害最大;(2)鱼卵和仔鱼、生物多样性及基因资源、气候调节和维持空气质量为倾倒区主要生态系统服务损害类型,损害价值分别为251万元、379.26万元、342.18万元,三者之和比重达73%;(3)基于生态修复海洋损害价值为1 522.37万元,其中海洋生态修复费用最高,为1 167.65万元;(4)将两种评估体系的海洋生态损害价值的平均值作为温州市旧城改造工程临时性海洋倾倒区的补偿标准,为1 427.49万元,单位面积补偿标准为0.79万元/hm~2·a。     

基于DMSP/OLS夜光遥感的山东半岛城市经济参量时空模拟分析

夜间灯光亮度与夜间人类活动程度具有密切的关系,夜间灯光遥感数据能够在一定程度上反映地区社会经济发展现状。文中基于2000-2012年21期DMSP/OLS夜间灯光数据对山东半岛蓝色经济区社会经济参量开展研究分析。首先,利用夜光总量统计方法和标准差椭圆法分别在时间和空间上对研究区夜间灯光亮度进行分析;其次,分别构建夜间灯光与GDP等4种社会经济参量的线性回归模型,进行相关性的分析;最后,采用GDP等2种社会经济参量对研究区进行时空模拟分析。结果表明:夜光数据与地区的社会经济参量具有明显的线性相关性,能够在时间和空间上客观地反映地区城市经济的发展现状和空间分布特征。     

Economic dimension of the collapse of the ‘false cod’ Epinephelus aeneus in a context of ineffective management of the small-scale fisheries in Senegal

Small-scale fisheries are often seen as a solution for ensuring sustainability in marine exploitation. They are viewed as a suitable alternative to industrial fisheries, particularly when considering their social and economic importance in developing countries. Here, we show that the booming small-scale fishery sector in Senegal, in the context of increasing foreign demand, has induced the collapse of one of the most emblematic West African marine fish species, a large grouper Epinephelus aeneus, historically called ‘false cod’ by European fishers. The overexploitation of this species appears to be on account of the increasing effort sustained by a growing international demand and important subsidies, which resulted in a relative stability of the average economic yield per fishing trip and an incentive for continuing targeting this species to almost extinction. It is a critical time for addressing and mitigating the pressure of the small-scale fisheries to prevent declines of fish species that are highly valued by northern markets. A balance between conservation and exploitation is necessary to maintain ecological viability while considering the socio-economic importance of the small-scale fisheries. However, a new strategy is needed for conservation that will consider and articulate simultaneously the concerns regarding unmanaged and growing small-scale fisheries, rampant subsidies and increasing foreign demand.     

A desert in the delta: Participatory assessment of changing livelihoods induced by commercial shrimp farming in Southwest Bangladesh

In recent years, shrimp aquaculture, which is undertaken largely in the tropical countries, has experienced spectacular growth in response to expanding global demand and higher economic return. Shrimp exports bring substantial foreign exchange to the producing countries and also generate employment for various stakeholders related to this industry. Despite a number positive aspects (e.g., foreign exchange, employment and food) of shrimp farming, the industry has serious negative environmental impacts. Because of the degradation of natural resources, commercial shrimp farming imposes socio-economic costs on rural resource-reliant communities as their traditional means of food production and livelihoods are displaced. Bangladesh produces 2.5 percent of the global production of shrimp. The country earned about 400 million dollars (U.S.) from shrimp exports during 2004-2005, up from only US$3.17 million in 1971-72. Bangladesh is suffering because of unplanned expansion of this aquaculture and increasingly called as “a desert in the delta”. The purpose of this paper is to identify the impact of commercial saltwater shrimp farming on rural livelihood patterns in southwest Bangladesh using different Participatory Research methods. The authors suggest that vulnerabilities in livelihoods of the rural communities increased due to narrowing down agricultural production, income sources and natural supply of food. Other socio-economic impacts (e.g., landuse patterns, homestead and family structure, daily movement pattern and activities, drinking water, and law and order) also followed as a reaction to the changing ecological conditions. It is also found that economic benefits from shrimp cultivation to the communities was minimal or even negative due to the polarization and outflow of profits, which is augmenting the threat of poverty.     

Ensuring appropriate and proportionate responses to environmental threats: A response to Caras and Pasternak

The ecological consequences of coral mining can be severe, with immediate reduction in reef-associated biodiversity and longer term implications for linked habitats such as mangrove forests and seagrass meadows. However, research into the effects of coral mining must take into account other environmental processes which may affect reef communities and the socio-economic context within which coral mining takes place if appropriate and proportionate management responses are to be identified. This article builds upon recently published research detailing the adverse effects of coral mining in Indonesia to illustrate the significance of these points. We use the previous paper to demonstrate that accurate identification of the ecological impacts of coral mining requires the use of appropriate control sites and recognizing natural stresses which may account for short-term variability in ecological parameters. We also underline the need to appreciate that government institutions can directly or indirectly facilitate coral mining, whilst proposed alternative income-generating activities intended to reduce coral mining should be tailored to the local economic, cultural and environmental context if they are to gain community support. This demonstrates the value of an integrated approach to analyzing marine resource usage which combines information from the natural and social sciences to address environmental problems such as coral mining.     

Effective ecosystem-based management must encourage regulatory compliance: A Gulf of California case study

The Northern Gulf of California is an area important for small-scale fisheries in terms of economic activity and food security, but widespread non-compliance with fisheries regulations impedes effective management of resources and conservation efforts. Where a previous study evaluated quantitatively a theoretical situation in which all regulations are perfectly followed, this article compares a suite of recently proposed ecosystem-based management (EBM) policies against the expected benefits of full enforcement of current regulations. Policies evaluated include no-take marine protected areas (MPAs), breeding period closures, changes in hook size and fishing effort, and gear-specific spatial closures. No-take MPAs yield ecological benefits over a wide range of MPA sizes and characteristics, but do not increase overall catch. Seasonal closures are effective at reducing overfishing for the depleted leopard grouper (Mycteroperca rosacea); changing the hook size of artisanal longlines does not increase catch of either the target species or the assemblage, and gear-specific fishery closures for crab traps near Puerto Peñasco are effective at reducing overfishing of blue crab (Callinectes bellicosus and C. arcuatus). In general, full enforcement of existing regulations outperforms these EBM policies in terms of conservation benefits, but it may be less palatable to stakeholders as it requires major reductions in catch.     

Integrating science into management: Ecological carrying capacity of bivalve shellfish aquaculture

Ecosystem-based management (EBM), despite the best efforts of managers, researchers, and policy makers, often falls short of its intended purpose resulting in inadequate protection of resources. Coastal habitats are particularly vulnerable to poor management due to high use and potential for user conflict. EBM can be improved when it is informed by ecological science and considers the socio-economic needs of the community. Communication between scientists and stakeholders can help to prevent adverse outcomes while enhancing protection and sustainability of the coastal environment. In the research presented here, a framework is used to guide and enhance communication between scientists and stakeholders for sustainable management of resources and equity of all users. The outcome of this applied framework is a long-term plan to guide the management of an oyster aquaculture industry using carrying capacity as an estimate for the basis of management decisions. Central to the framework is the Working Group on Aquaculture Regulations (WGAR), which represents a diverse group of stakeholders. The WGAR worked closely with ecological modelers over a two-year period using mass-balance modeling to calculate ecological carrying capacity for oyster aquaculture in two ecosystems: Narragansett Bay and a set of highly flushed temperate lagoons in Rhode Island, USA. Collaboration between scientists and the WGAR greatly improved the models and stakeholder understanding of the science and acceptance of the results. Aquaculture is increasing in coastal regions world-wide and this framework should be easily transferable to other areas suffering from similar user conflict issues.     

The value of marine biodiversity to the leisure and recreation industry and its application to marine spatial planning

The incorporation of the ecosystem approach into marine planning requires that all aspects of value associated with marine biodiversity are incorporated into the decision making process. An ecosystem services approach to valuing marine biodiversity is recognised as a framework by which economic, ecological and social values may be incorporated into the decision making process. There are sectors of the marine leisure and recreation industry (sub-aqua diving, sea angling and wildlife watching), which depend on the presence of natural marine resources in order to carry out their activity. Estimating the value of this direct use can provide an evidence base for the sustainable use of marine biodiversity when set against other competing economic interests in marine spatial planning. In the case study area of Lyme Bay, the marine leisure and recreation industry has been valued using both monetary and non-monetary methods. The results show that the leisure and recreation industry is dependent on the diversity of sites (many of which are currently unmanaged) and that the industry is of economic significance and an area which has recently been closed to trawling activity enables the protection of some of the most valuable sites but has limited benefits for protecting the full resource base upon which this local industry depends.     

Planting the SEED: Towards a Spatial Economic Ecological Database for a shared understanding of the Dutch Wadden area

In this paper we address the characteristics of a publicly accessible Spatial Economic Ecological Database (SEED) and its ability to support a shared understanding among planners and experts of the economy and ecology of the Dutch Wadden area. Theoretical building blocks for a Wadden SEED are discussed. Our SEED contains a comprehensive set of stakeholder validated spatially explicit data on key economic and ecological indicators. These data extend over various spatial scales. Spatial issues relevant to the specification of a Wadden-SEED and its data needs are explored in this paper and illustrated using empirical data for the Dutch Wadden area. The purpose of the SEED is to integrate basic economic and ecologic information in order to support the resolution of specific (policy) questions and to facilitate connections between project level and strategic level in the spatial planning process. Although modest in its ambitions, we will argue that a Wadden SEED can serve as a valuable element in the much debated science–policy interface. A Wadden SEED is valuable since it is a consensus-based common knowledge base on the economy and ecology of an area rife with ecological–economic conflict, including conflict in which scientific information is often challenged and disputed.     

半封闭海域生态修复策略研究——以渤海为例

渤海作为我国唯一的半封闭型海域,是京津冀城市群蓬勃发展的战略支撑和关键依托,其生态环境的稳定与沿岸人类福祉息息相关,其生态环境修复是近年来该领域的研究热点。文章重点围绕全球气候变化和人类活动对渤海生态环境的影响进行了剖析,通过综合对比分析国内外其他类似水域或地区的生态修复既有成果,立足渤海水域特点和现状,提出动态思维与整体保护原则、生境连通性修复原则、不同时空尺度修复原则等生态修复原则,并指出渤海生态修复需理性规划渔业经济活动,统筹考虑渤海生态与冲淡水之间的关系,建议运用前瞻性的思维模式和理念,合理预测、规划、定位、配置、实施和维护渤海生态系统的稳定,重点探索应对全球气候变化的最佳适应性管理策略。     

Key principles of marine ecosystem-based management

Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) has gained international popularity in recent years, but the lack of consensus on its definition has precluded the use of a universal implementation framework. The large number and variety of principles that make up EBM, and the diversity in perspectives among key management players, has impeded the practical application of EBM. Agreement on a list of the essential ingredients of EBM is vital to successful application. A frequency analysis of EBM principles was conducted to identify the Key Principles that currently define EBM, from a list of twenty-six principles extracted from a subset of the EBM theoretical/conceptual literature (covering a range of published sources across disciplines and application types). Fifteen Key Principles were identified (in descending frequency of appearance in the literature): Consider Ecosystem Connections, Appropriate Spatial & Temporal Scales, Adaptive Management, Use of Scientific Knowledge, Integrated Management, Stakeholder Involvement, Account for Dynamic Nature of Ecosystems, Ecological Integrity & Biodiversity, Sustainability, Recognise Coupled Social-Ecological Systems, Decisions reflect Societal Choice, Distinct Boundaries, Interdisciplinarity, Appropriate Monitoring, and Acknowledge Uncertainty. This paper also examines the development of EBM principles over time, leading to predictions on the directions EBM will take in the future. The frequency analysis methodology used here can be replicated to update the Key Principles of EBM in the future. Indeed, further research on potential emerging Key Principles such as ‘Consider Cumulative Impacts’, ‘Apply the Precautionary Approach’ and ‘Explicitly Acknowledge Trade Offs’ will help shape EBM and its successful application in the management of marine activities.     

Evidence of a common understanding of proximate and distal drivers of reef health

Marine management has typically prioritised natural science methodological traditions as an evidence base for decision-making; yet better integration of social science methods are increasingly shown to provide a more comprehensive picture to base management decisions. Specifically, perceptions-based assessments are gaining support, as they can provide efficient and holistic evaluation regarding management issues. This study focuses on coral reefs because they are particularly threatened ecosystems, due to their ecological complexity, socio-economic importance, and the range of environmental drivers that impact them. Research has largely concentrated on assessing proximate threats to coral reefs. Less attention has been given to distal drivers, such as socio-economic and governance factors. A common understanding of threats related to coral reef degradation is critical for integrated management that takes account of peoples’ concerns. This study compares perceptions of drivers of reef health among stakeholders (n = 110) across different sectors and governance levels, in four Caribbean countries. Interview data identified 37 proximate and 136 distal drivers, categorised into 27 themes. Five sub-groups of themes connecting proximate and distal drivers were identified. Perceptions of two of these narratives, relating to ‘fishing and socioeconomic issues’ and ‘reef management and coastal development’, differed among respondents from different countries and sectors respectively. However, the findings highlight a shared perception of many themes, with 18 of the 27 (67%) mentioned by > 25% of respondents. This paper highlights the application of perceptions data for marine management, demonstrating how knowledge of proximate and distal drivers can be applied to identify important issues at different context-specific scales.     

我国近岸海域污染防治对策研究

随着沿海经济的迅猛发展,我国近岸海域污染日益严重,成为影响我国海洋生态文明建设的主要问题之一。文章在全面分析我国近岸海域生态环境状况和存在的主要生态环境问题的基础上,提出以下对策建议:我国近岸海域污染防治应加强陆海统筹,切实削减氮磷入海总量;严格控制填海工程,坚决遏制滨海湿地丧失的势头;围绕关键海洋关键生态过程,实施生态恢复修复工程;加强海洋灾害风险管控,有效预防海洋环境灾害发生;加强海洋生态环境监测,为我国近岸海域的可持续发展提供保障。     

A Policy-enabling framework for the ex-ante evaluation of marine protected areas

A marine protected area (MPA) potentially generates a wide range of consumptive use, non-consumptive use and non-use values that include: critical habitat protection, conservation of marine biodiversity, recovery of threatened and endangered marine species, increased recreational benefits and increased biomass of harvested marine species. To help assess whether such values exceed the potential costs of MPAs, this paper provides a policy-enabling framework that reviews the existing theoretical and practical instruments and approaches that can be used in the ex-ante evaluation of MPAs. This framework is in three parts. First, a range of alternative monetary and non-monetary techniques to estimate three key economic benefits of MPAs: consumptive, non-consumptive use and non-use values are presented. Second, three decision protocols that can be applied to determine the desirability of establishing MPAs are described. Third, caveats of these approaches and the necessity to accommodate social needs of the communities are provided. The framework shows that biological and ecological considerations together with economic viability and socio-economic factors can and should be taken into account when deciding about when and where to establish MPAs and of what size.     

海洋功能区开发潜力评价研究--以江苏滨海县为例

新一轮海洋功能区划修编在即,为平衡海洋资源开发利用和资源环境可持续利用的关系,开展海洋功能区开发潜力研究成为合理确定海域功能的重要依据。本文构建了海洋功能区开发潜力评价模型,从环境生态现状、资源现状、开发现状和社会经济需求四方面选取评价指标,建立海洋功能区开发潜力评价指标体系,并选取具有代表性的江苏滨海县作为研究区,以滨海县各海洋功能区为评价单元开展了实证研究。结果表明:滨海县海洋功能区总体开发潜力较高,环境生态和资源现状等自然条件较好,开发潜力大,但海域开发现状和社会经济需求等社会条件较差,影响了海洋功能区开发的技术支持与需求。     

基于生态适宜性评价的海洋生态系统管理——以温州市洞头区为例

海洋为人类生存和社会经济发展提供了重要的资源和环境条件,海洋生态适宜性研究能够评定海域的固有属性对生态保护和开发利用的适宜等级和潜力-限制因素.本研究以典型的海岛区洞头为例,构建了海洋生态适宜性评价的空间分析模型,计算得到其空间分布,进而开展了生态适宜度的功能分区;据此划分了洞头区的生态管控空间,判断了未来海域资源保护和开发利用管理的主导方向,提出了各管控区发展的资源优势及限制性因素.结果表明,洞头海域按照生态适宜度值的高低可以清晰地划分为重点保护区、一般保护区、适度开发区和优化开发区等4类功能区,分别占区域总面积的23%、50%、18%和9%;前两者为生态保护及恢复的重要区域,后两者是未来海洋资源开发利用的主要区域; 4类区域可以归并为生态保护、农渔业养殖、城镇开发3类管控功能区.本研究对开展海洋生态功能区划、协调海洋资源开发与区域生态保护的关系、构建基于生态系统的海洋综合管理模式具有重要意义.     

基于能值生态足迹的海岛可持续性评估——以舟山为例

基于能值理论,结合生态足迹方法,构建能值生态赤字/盈余、渔业足迹强度(D)、社会发展压力指数(I)和经济协调指数(Q)参数评价海岛可持续性,选取典型海岛城市浙江省舟山市作为案例研究。结果显示:2003—2017年舟山能值足迹、能值承载力均呈上升趋势;人均能值生态足迹共增加15.78 hm²,增幅为63.26%;人均能值承载力增加5.20×10² hm²,增幅为82.86%;其中,化石能源用地能值足迹增加最多,社会经济承载力增加最多,而自然承载力却有所下降。能值生态赤字/盈余和经济协调指数不能完全反映区域可持续性,区域渔业足迹强度的不断增加表明当前的渔业经济模式不满足可持续发展要求,社会发展压力指数增大也进一步表明舟山的发展状况偏离了可持续性的轨道。     

Evaluating sustainability criteria for a marine protected area in Veracruz,Mexico

Marine protected areas are designed to protect natural resources within their limits. The National Park Veracruz Reef System was declared a protected area in 1992, however in the ensuing 17 years only limited measures have been taken to reduce harvesting within the area. This study was conducted as a base line to evaluate the sustainability of the park area in the present open access regime. Indicators were selected based upon sustainability attributes and criteria previously defined, patterned after a method used to evaluate sustainability in agricultural systems. To evaluate the selected indicators questionnaires were applied to the inhabitants of three fishing communities surrounding the park. Results show a precarious sustainability index for the reef system of 45.87%. We observed differences in the sustainability indices for the three communities when a classification and ordination analysis were applied. Also, applying this analysis to the indices, we found differences between social and economic criteria. The application of this kind of evaluation for the management of the area is discussed.     

Spatially explicit economic assessment of cultural ecosystem services: Non-extractive recreational uses of the coastal environment related to marine biodiversity

The adoption of comprehensive marine spatial plans (MSP) requires that all aspects of value associated with marine biodiversity are considered in their development. Therefore, a holistic approach to MSP needs to include the ecological, social and economic aspects related to the range of goods and services provided by marine biodiversity. In temperate coastal areas however, extractive uses of marine biodiversity (i.e., fisheries) tend to receive more consideration than other non-extractive uses such as certain forms of recreation. This is primarily due to its economic and social importance and a lack of information on non-extractive uses of marine biodiversity. This study presents an assessment of the economic importance and spatial distribution of non-extractive uses of marine biodiversity (diving, kayaking, wildlife watching from boats and seabird watching) in the coastal temperate area of Wales and its application to MSP. The assessment of the economic importance and spatial distribution of these uses was ascertained through questionnaires with relevant users. Results indicated that the economic importance of non-extractive recreational uses of marine biodiversity in Wales is comparable to that of commercial fisheries for the same region. Spatially there was a significant degree of overlap among areas used by the different recreational groups studied here and the distribution of uses could be linked to different aspects of marine biodiversity, such as the presence of particular habitats in the case of divers. The integration of spatially explicit socioeconomic data for a range of different uses of marine biodiversity enables policy makers to gain useful insight into the potential consequences of implementing a spatial management regime, as certain uses can be sometimes overlooked but are still essential if we are to consider the impact of spatial planning on all economically relevant activities. Such data provide a balanced overview of the value of marine biodiversity to different sectors of society and contributes to the process of developing comprehensive marine spatial plans.