Setting conservation priorities in Fiji: Decision science versus additive scoring systems

There is a well-established scientific field – decision science – that can be used to rigorously set conservation priorities. Despite well-documented shortcomings, additive scoring approaches to conservation prioritization are still prevalent. This paper discusses the shortcomings and advantages of both approaches applied in Fiji to identify priorities for terrestrial protected areas. The two main shortcomings of using a scoring approach (discussed in Keppel (2014) [1]) that are resolved with decision science approaches (presented in Klein et al. (2014) [2]) in Fiji were (1) priorities did not achieve one of the most important stated conservation goals of representing ~40% of Fiji׳s major vegetation types and (2) the weighting of different selection criteria used was arbitrary. Both approaches considered expert knowledge and land–sea connections important to decision makers in Fiji, but only decision science can logically integrate both, in addition to other important considerations. Thus, decision makers are urged to use decision science and avoid additive scoring systems when prioritizing places for conservation. Fiji has the opportunity to be a global leader in using decision science to support integrated land–sea planning decisions.     

Farming the reef: is aquaculture a solution for reducing fishing pressure on coral reefs?

This paper presents the results of an analysis to determine the financial and social feasibility of aquaculture technologies for live reef organisms, including food fish and marine ornamentals, as an alternative to wild capture of live reef organisms in nearshore waters in the Indo-Pacific region. The paper provides information and policy guidance for appropriate aquaculture technology application for Indo-Pacific nations, which are the source of most live reef organisms supplied for international trade. Cautionary evidence indicates that, under certain conditions, some forms of small-scale aquaculture of live coral reef organisms can be a useful solution for reducing fishing pressure on coral reefs.     

The effect of contrasting threat mitigation objectives on spatial conservation priorities

The primary role of marine protected areas (MPAs) is marine conservation, however policy and practice around MPAs have not reflected this. The focus on cost-effectiveness by spatial conservation prioritization has led to a bias towards placing MPAs in areas that are least threatened. This study investigates how conservation priorities differ between two management strategies of either targeting or avoiding high threat areas for protection, using the case of the Sulu Sulawesi Seas in the Coral Triangle. For both strategies, the target of protecting 20% of habitat could not be achieved solely by protecting low threat areas. A high proportion of the region had large differences in conservation outcomes between the two strategies; majority of these areas were highly prioritized in the threat avoidance strategy but had low or zero importance in the threat selection strategy. Selecting for highly threatened areas required less habitat area to be protected to achieve the same conservation target and resulted in a more equitable distribution of priority sites per country and sub-region. This demonstrates the importance of deciding on the objectives of conservation and management policies up-front. The results suggest that, contrary to the common practice of avoiding threats in spatial planning, a threat selection strategy should be part of the management toolbox, particularly in transboundary planning for regions with high overall threat levels, where it may be important to achieve shared conservation targets equitably.     

西沙赵述岛海域珊瑚礁生态修复效果的初步评估

珊瑚恢复是一个协助退化、受损的珊瑚礁生态系统恢复的过程.近10 a来,西沙珊瑚礁生态系统不断退化,至2009年珊瑚覆盖率已下降至不足10%.针对西沙群岛珊瑚礁生态系统的退化状况,2011年12月于西沙赵述岛海域投放人工礁基并开展珊瑚移植实验,比较了人工修复区和自然恢复区1a后的修复效果.结果显示,投放礁基且进行珊瑚移植的区域,移植珊瑚的存活率不到10%;投放礁基但未进行珊瑚移植的区域,珊瑚补充量高达6~7 ind/m2;自然恢复区其珊瑚覆盖率提高了19.4%.依据珊瑚礁生态修复效果评估方法,人工修复且进行移植珊瑚的区域的生物修复权重值为27.5,人工修复但未移植珊瑚区及自然恢复区的生物修复权重值为39.3,珊瑚修复生物指标为亚健康.我们的结果表明,在健康、有良好珊瑚幼虫补充的珊瑚礁生态系统中,珊瑚礁群落可以自行恢复,其恢复只是一个时间的问题;而在缺少珊瑚幼虫附着基底的区域,通过人为增加一些附着基底,可加速其恢复进程.     

Evaluation of policy options for the live reef food fish trade in the province of Palawan,Western Philippines

The live reef food fish (LRFF) trade has an estimated annual retail value of US$1 billion in the Asia-Pacific region and at least US$30 million in the Philippines. Palawan Province is the trade's center accounting for as much as 55% of the commodity's total export. Concern about the LRFF trade has caused the Palawan Provincial government to take action to regulate the trade. Four key policy options to address the short-term policy objective of developing a sustainable LRFF industry through the reduction of threats associated with destructive fishing and overfishing were proposed. These four policy options and associated analyses were presented to stakeholders at three separate policy consultations. The stakeholders reached a consensus that a regulated LRFF trade was the most sensible option. As a result, the Provincial Government of Palawan took action to enact “The Palawan Live Reef Fish Ordinance of 2006”, which provides for the sustainable and integrated regulation of the LRFF industry. This provincial ordinance will assist in crafting a national policy for the LRFF trade and may also be useful in revising the 1998 Philippine Fisheries Code. The key challenge is how to translate the ordinance provisions into effective on-the-ground actions.     

Planktonic and benthic microalgal community composition as indicators of terrestrial influence on a fringing reef in Ishigaki Island, Southwest Japan

Microalgal-based indicators were used to assess terrestrial influence on Shiraho coral reef of Ishigaki Island (Okinawa, Japan). A typhoon occurred on 4-5 August 2005 and sampling were made on three occasions thereafter (6, 8, and 11 August). Pre-typhoon sampling was conducted on 26 July. The typhoon-enhanced terrestrial discharges increased reef nutrient levels (e.g. average NO(3)(-)-N: 0.088mg/L pre-typhoon to 0.817mg/L post-typhoon). This elevated chlorophyll-a concentrations by four times and shifted phytoplankton composition (spectral class-based) from an initial dominance of diatoms and green microalgae to the dominance of bluegreen microalgae (cyanobacteria) and cryptophytes. Cyanobacteria later increased by more than 200% and accounted for as much as 80% of total chl-a ( approximately 0.29microg/L), possibly assisted by favorable nutrient availability. In outer reef waters, diatoms and green microalgae predominated whereas cyanobacteria and cryptophytes were nearly undetectable. Due to detrital decomposition and river discharge, the CDOM was much higher in the inner reef than in the outer reef. Benthic bluegreen microalgae were relatively more abundant in areas close to the river mouth and coastal agricultural fields. At these locations, nutrient concentrations were much higher due to river discharge and potentially significant groundwater discharge. Thus, phytoplankton and benthic microalgae can serve as indicators of terrestrial influence on coral reefs.     

The impact of artisanal fishing on coral reef fish health in Hat Thai Mueang,Phang-nga Province,Southern Thailand

This study investigates whether there has been a decline in fish stocks of a coral reef in Thailand, and if so, whether that decline is due to small-scale fishing. The research methods used included fish sampling by UVC, interviews and questionnaires with key informants and artisanal fishers. The results confirmed that there has been a decline in piscivores and carnivores (though not herbivores), and the main perceived threat came not from artisanal but from commercial fishing. Recommendations are to replace the largely unrestricted fishery with a more regulated regime backed by effective enforcement.     

Mind the gap: Addressing the shortcomings of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning

A blind faith in the ability of MPAs to counteract loss of biodiversity is fraught with risk, especially when MPAs are poorly planned and when the consequences of establishing MPAs are not adequately thought out. MPA shortcomings are categorized as one of five main types: (1) MPAs that by virtue of their small size or poor design are ecologically insufficient; (2) inappropriately planned or managed MPAs; (3) MPAs that fail due to the degradation of the unprotected surrounding ecosystems; (4) MPAs that do more harm than good due to displacement and unintended consequences of management; and (5) MPAs that create a dangerous illusion of protection when in fact no protection is occurring. A strategic alternative, which fully utilizes the strengths of the MPA tool while avoiding the pitfalls, can overcome these shortcomings: integrating marine protected area planning in broader marine spatial planning and ocean zoning efforts.     

夏季海南东、南沿岸珊瑚礁区浮游动物群落结构特征研究

于2018年8月对海南东、南海域展开断面调查研究,共获取了18个浮游动物样品,分析了浮游动物的种群分布和群落结构变化,旨在了解不同区域珊瑚礁生态系统的结构与功能。结果表明:海南东、南沿岸共鉴定浮游动物43属62种,浮游幼体23类,分为河口类群、暖水沿岸类群和暖水广布类群共三个生态类群,浮游动物种群组成以桡足类占优势,优势种以亚强次真哲水蚤(Subeucalanus subcrassus)、肥胖箭虫(Sagittaenflata)、异体住囊虫(Oikopleuradioica)、长尾类幼体(Macruralarva)、鱼卵(Fisheggs)、双生水母(Diphyeschamissonis)等种类组成。浮游动物个体丰度、物种丰富度和多样性指数等参数均存在区域性差异,整体呈现为三亚琼海文昌,湿重生物量则为琼海三亚文昌。总体而言,三亚珊瑚礁生态系统的健康状况整体优于文昌和琼海地区,浮游动物种类丰富度与多样性整体呈较高水平。     

南海珊瑚礁区34年卫星遥感海表温度变化的时空特征分析

选取NOAA OISST数据集的1982-2015年南海月平均海洋表面温度（SST）,先对东沙、西沙和南沙礁区海域的多年SST进行时间尺度上的统计,然后对该数据集进行距平场的经验正交函数（EOF）分解,研究南海海表温度的时间和空间年际变化特征。研究显示:（1）不同的礁区海域SST升温趋势不同,东沙礁区海域SST升温趋势最明显（0.216℃/（10 a））,西沙和南沙礁区SST的升温趋势分别为0.180℃/（10 a）和0.096℃/（10 a）;（2）西沙和南沙礁区全年处于珊瑚生长的最适海温范围内,东沙一年中有4个月海温较低,SST最高的月份分别集中在7月（东沙礁区）、6月（西沙礁区）和5月（南沙礁区）;（3） EOF第一模态的空间分布显示南海SST变化是同相位的,由西北—东南振幅量值递减,在礁区振幅从大到小依次为东沙、西沙、南沙;（4） EOF第一模态时间系数显示南海SST变化与El Niño事件相关。南海海表温度异常场与Niño3.4指数的相关性分析显示两者关联度最高为0.723,平均关联度也高达0.655;南海SST的变化滞后Niño3.4区7~8个月。综上,在全球变暖背景下,南海SST的变化不仅受到El Niño事件的影响,其不断上升也在悄然威胁珊瑚的正常生长。     

Assessing the quality of data required to identify effective marine protected areas

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of currently available substrate data to designate marine reserves to meet conservation objectives. The case study site is Lyme Bay (approx. 2460 km²), in the western English Channel. An area of 240 km² in Lyme Bay was designated ‘closed to bottom dredging’ in July 2008 with the aim of protecting reefs which are an important habitat for Eunicella verrucosa (pink sea fan). The effects of using different substrate data resolution on the selection of sites to protect a range of biotopes using the Marxan package are determined. The effect of including a closed area on the efficiency of a marine reserve network is also investigated. Findings suggest that substrate data did not capture the biodiversity of the area and that using no data at all was equally effective. If low resolution data are all that are available then other options, such as expert opinion, or other data, such as activity use information could be used instead. Including a predefined closed area into the analysis led to an increase in area required to meet conservation goals using high resolution biotope data. It also increased the area of the reserve using the three substrate layers with no increase in protection for biotopes. This suggests that when designing networks of marine protected area sites, including current protected areas may be inefficient, resulting in larger areas being protected with no increased conservation of marine biodiversity. Policy makers must be prepared to adapt management in light of these findings and be aware of the shortcomings of the data available for use in marine conservation planning.     

A new coral reef province in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia: Colonisation, growth and submergence during the early Holocene

Multibeam sonar mapping, drill cores and underwater video data have confirmed the existence of a previously unknown coral reef province in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia. Seven reefs, comprised of coral limestone that support living corals have been mapped so far and as many as 50 other reefs may exist in the region. U/Th ages show that reef growth commenced shortly after limestone pedestals were submerged by rising sea level around 10.5 kyr BP, making them the oldest Holocene reefs known in Australia. Reef growth persisted for ~ 2.0 kyr but it had ceased at most locations by ~ 7.0 kyr BP. Measurements of reef growth rates (0.95 to 4 m kyr^− 1), indicate that the reefs were unable to keep pace with contemporaneous rapid sea level rise (> 10 m kyr^− 1), which is consistent with a “give up” reef growth history. Core samples from reef platforms demonstrate that Pleistocene limestone is exposed at depths of 27 and 30 m below present mean sea level. These depths represent regionally significant phases of reef growth during a prolonged sea level still stand. We conclude that the reefs are therefore mostly relict features, whose major phase of growth and development relates to an earlier, pre-Holocene sea level still stand.     

珊瑚礁环境质量变化的价值评估——以涠洲岛为例

以涠洲岛为例,使用非市场价值评估手段对涠洲岛珊瑚礁环境质量进行了非使用价值评估,分析了珊瑚礁环境质量变化所产生的价值损益。2012年在涠洲岛通过模拟3种珊瑚礁环境质量变化,对上岛游客进行调访,游客从影响珊瑚礁环境质量的珊瑚礁覆盖度、珊瑚礁种类以及海水能见度3方面进行考虑,选择最终旅游目的地,共调查300位游客,收集有效数据900份。应用随机效应理论和混合对数模型进行分析和评估,结果显示,当涠洲岛珊瑚礁环境质量提升时,将会人均获益399元/年;当涠洲岛珊瑚礁环境质量略有下降时,将会损失人均561元/年;而当珊瑚礁环境质量下降较大时,人均损失将达到918元/年。同时,本研究的成果可以推广到其它海岛以及陆地进行环境质量变化评估,并且可以评估未来气候变化条件下对珊瑚礁生态系统的价值损失。     

南海典型珊瑚礁生态系统健康评价方法研究

本研究基于系统复杂性原理, 提出了南海典型珊瑚礁生态系统健康评价方法——组织力及系统功能评价法。该方法的评价框架包括珊瑚礁生态系统结构及功能、珊瑚礁生态系统与其他海洋生态系统间关系、与人类社会生态系统间关系、珊瑚礁生态系统发展制约因素等四大模块; 评价指标体系分为目标层、准则层、因素层、要素层等6个层级共计67个指标。同时, 本研究系统地提出了珊瑚礁生态系统健康评价的流程, 提高了珊瑚礁健康评价工作的规范性和时效性。应用组织力及系统功能评价法对2011—2018年西沙群岛珊瑚礁生态系统进行了健康评价, 结果显示自2011年起健康指数年均下降2.3%~2.4%, 除2012年、2015年健康指数稍有回升外, 其余年份均呈下降走势, 整体评价为亚健康状态。根据七连屿周边岛屿的实地考察和居民生活问卷调查结果, 2006—2008年的渔业发展、2012年的海星泛滥和2014—2015年的岛礁建设均对珊瑚礁生态系统造成了较大影响, 使10年内渔业产量下降了50%~80%。这与应用组织力及系统功能评价法的评价结果相吻合, 侧面验证了该评价方法的科学性和可行性。     

中国陆海经济发展水平及相互作用机制研究

探究陆海经济关联性及其相互作用机制对实现陆海统筹具有重要意义。以中国沿海11省区市为研究区,运用核密度估计、地理探测器等方法对2006—2017年陆海经济发展演变过程及其相互影响过程进行探讨。研究发现：（1）沿海区域陆海经济整体呈正向发展态势,但海洋经济仍落后于陆域经济发展水平;（2）沿海区域海洋经济正逐渐形成具有健全产业结构的独立经济体系,但其对陆域产业影响程度仍弱于陆域产业对海洋产业的带动作用;（3）空间上看,陆海产业相互作用排序为：北部经济圈>南部经济圈>东部经济圈。未来仍应以陆域经济为重心,优化沿海经济圈产业布局,加强沿海经济圈对内陆经济辐射效应;（4）陆海产业之间已形成良好联动作用机制,尤其是陆域第二产业、第三产业和海洋第三产业之间交互影响强烈,其作用机制可归纳为资源交换型、产业链型、动态互助型三种。     

基于浮标观测的南海西沙群岛潟湖区潮流特征研究

本文利用南海西沙群岛潟湖区29 d的全水深浮标观测资料研究了潟湖区内正压潮和内潮的基本特征,采用深度平均方法分析海流的适用性,并讨论潟湖区内潮的主要来源。深度平均流的动能谱显示全日潮流占主导,其动能占整体海流动能的41%。对比分析深度平均流和Tpxo7.2模式预测的全日、半日潮流的调和常数,两者均表明全日正压潮流受地形调制,主轴方向为西北−东南向,而半日正压潮流主轴方向为东−西向。两种方法得到的全日正压潮流大−小潮存在半个相位（6～7 d）的差异,进一步分析发现全日正压潮和全日内潮潮龄不同,存在部分相互抵消,且全日内潮大潮发生时间在深度上存在差异,推测由于缺少海表和海底的测量数据,导致深度平均方法得到的全日正压潮仍然包含全日内潮信号。调和分析结果表明,全日内潮的动能中相干部分占比高达91%,说明潟湖区的全日内潮是正压潮与局地岛礁地形相互作用产生,而从远场传播而来的可能性很小。     

全球变化背景下暖水珊瑚礁生态系统的适应性与修复研究

暖水珊瑚礁生态系统是热带海域最具生物多样性和代表性的生态系统之一。本研究分析了全球变化背景下暖水珊瑚礁生态系统的变化和风险,开展了受损暖水珊瑚礁生态系统退化和消失的致灾因子归因分析,综述了暖水珊瑚礁生态系统的适应性与修复技术研究。分析表明:①过去几十年来,暖水珊瑚礁生态系统快速退化,包括大面积白化和死亡、多样性明显减少和生态功能显著衰退,主要归因于海洋升温与人类活动等致灾因子的影响;②在温室气体高排放浓度情景下(RCP 8.5),相比工业革命前,到本世纪中叶,南海升温将可能远超过2℃,这表明南海暖水珊瑚礁生态系统正在逼近其气候临界点,即全球升温高于2℃时,90%~99%以上的暖水珊瑚将消失;③1980年代以来,海洋升温、海洋热浪和强热带气旋等海洋气候变化致灾因子对南海暖水珊瑚的危害性(影响的强度、范围和时间)明显增加,对暖水珊瑚礁生态系统产生了严重的影响;与此同时,近岸海域的过度或破坏性捕捞、采挖和潜水等人类活动,对暖水珊瑚造成了严重损害,增加了暖水珊瑚的气候脆弱性,而这种人类活动既是局部的,也是全球性的现象,使得暖水珊瑚更难以适应全球变暖的影响。分析还表明,为了增强暖水珊瑚适应气候与环境变化的恢复力(韧性),人们开展了诸多受损珊瑚礁生态系统的适应性与修复研究,但主要是采用无性繁殖或结合人工基质的修复方式,而应用有性繁殖技术恢复受损珊瑚礁的方式仍较少;最近,暖水珊瑚耐热的基因适应性研究取得了重要进展,为暖水珊瑚适应全球变暖提供了一种新的途径。本研究最后探讨了中国受损珊瑚礁生态系统的修复问题与对策。     

ENSO对中国近海海平面影响的区域特征研究

使用卫星测高、海表温度以及中国沿海台站水位等数据,分析研究了ENSO对中国近海海平面影响的区域特征。结果表明:（1）赤道东太平洋海表温度与我国近海海平面存在显著的遥相关关系。相关系数自北至南呈梯度递增,分为3个影响明显的区域,分别是渤、黄海、东海和南海海域。南海海平面异常与赤道东太平洋区域的海表温度异常相关性最强,大部分区域的相关系数超过了0.6;东海海域海平面异常与赤道东太平洋海表温度的遥相关系数弱于南海,强于渤、黄海,大部分海域的遥相关系数超过了0.4;渤、黄海海域海平面异常与赤道东太平洋海表温度的遥相关系数最弱,但是大部分海域的遥相关系数超过了0.3,通过了显著性检验。（2）中国沿海海平面的季节变化与ENSO有明显的相关关系,且影响范围具有明显的区域特征,以长江口和台湾海峡为分界线分为长江口以北、长江口到台湾海峡以及台湾海峡以南3个区域。海平面的年振幅在厄尔尼诺年均出现偏低的现象,并且年振幅的极小值均出现在厄尔尼诺年。另外,海平面的年振幅对厄尔尼诺事件的响应与其强弱有关,在强厄尔尼诺事件中,响应区域和幅度较大,弱事件中,响应区域和幅度偏小。（3）南海、东海和渤、黄海这3个区域沿海的海平面变化均存在4~7 a的显著振荡周期,说明这3个区域的海平面均受ENSO的影响。其中,南海7 a周期的振荡幅度最大,约为1.5 cm;东海7 a周期的振荡幅度次之,约为1.3 cm;渤、黄海6 a周期的振荡幅度最小,不到1 cm。