Structural control of geothermal reservoirs in extensional tectonic settings: An example from the Upper Rhine Graben

In extensional tectonic settings major structural elements such as graben boundary faults are typically oriented subparallel to the maximum horizontal stress component S_Hmax. They are often structurally accompanied by transfer zones that trend subparallel to the extension direction. In the Upper Rhine Graben, such transfer faults are typically characterized by strike-slip or oblique-slip kinematics. A major re-orientation of the regional stress field by up to 90° of the Upper Rhine Graben in the Early Miocene led to the present-day normal and strike-slip faulting regimes in the North and South of the Upper Rhine Graben, respectively, and a transition zone in-between. Consequently, conditions for fault frictional failure changed significantly. Moreover, it has been observed during tracer and stimulation experiments that such transfer faults may be of major importance for the hydraulic field of geothermal reservoirs under the present stress condition, especially, when located between production and injection well.In this context we have investigated slip and dilation tendencies (T_S and T_D) of major structural elements at reservoir scale for two representative geothermal sites, Bruchsal (Germany) and Riehen (Switzerland), located close to the Eastern Main Boundary Fault of the Upper Rhine Graben. We have evaluated the quality and uncertainty range of both tendencies with respect to potential variation in S_Hmax orientation. Despite significant differences in orientation of the structures and the stress regimes, the resulting variation of T_S and T_D reveal major similarities concerning the reactivation potential of both, the graben-parallel structures and the transfer faults. The conditions of criticality for tensile failure and non-criticality for shear failure suggest that transfer faults are most likely naturally permeable structures with low stimulation potential. This is in agreement with the absence of both immediate tracer recovery and seismicity in the studied geothermal sites.     

Numerical modelling of fault reactivation in carbonate rocks under fluid depletion conditions – 2D generic models with a small isolated fault

This generic 2D elastic-plastic modelling investigated the reactivation of a small isolated and critically-stressed fault in carbonate rocks at a reservoir depth level for fluid depletion and normal-faulting stress conditions. The model properties and boundary conditions are based on field and laboratory experimental data from a carbonate reservoir. The results show that a pore pressure perturbation of −25 MPa by depletion can lead to the reactivation of the fault and parts of the surrounding damage zones, producing normal-faulting downthrows and strain localization. The mechanism triggering fault reactivation in a carbonate field is the increase of shear stresses with pore-pressure reduction, due to the decrease of the absolute horizontal stress, which leads to an expanded Mohr's circle and mechanical failure, consistent with the predictions of previous poroelastic models. Two scenarios for fault and damage-zone permeability development are explored: (1) large permeability enhancement of a sealing fault upon reactivation, and (2) fault and damage zone permeability development governed by effective mean stress. In the first scenario, the fault becomes highly permeable to across- and along-fault fluid transport, removing local pore pressure highs/lows arising from the presence of the initially sealing fault. In the second scenario, reactivation induces small permeability enhancement in the fault and parts of damage zones, followed by small post-reactivation permeability reduction. Such permeability changes do not appear to change the original flow capacity of the fault or modify the fluid flow velocity fields dramatically.     

Role of Geomechanics in Assessing the Feasibility of CO2 Sequestration in Depleted Hydrocarbon Sandstone Reservoirs

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) sequestration in depleted sandstone hydrocarbon reservoirs could be complicated by a number of geomechanical problems associated with well drilling, completions, and CO₂ injection. The initial production of hydrocarbons (gas or oil) and the resulting pressure depletion as well as associated reduction in horizontal stresses (e.g., fracture gradient) narrow the operational drilling mud weight window, which could exacerbate wellbore instabilities while infill drilling. Well completions (casing, liners, etc.) may experience solids flowback to the injector wells when injection is interrupted due to CO₂ supply or during required system maintenance. CO₂ injection alters the pressure and temperature in the near wellbore region, which could cause fault reactivation or thermal fracturing. In addition, the injection pressure may exceed the maximum sustainable storage pressure, and cause fracturing and fault reactivation within the reservoirs or bounding formations. A systematic approach has been developed for geomechanical assessments for CO₂ storage in depleted reservoirs. The approach requires a robust field geomechanical model with its components derived from drilling and production data as well as from wireline logs of historical wells. This approach is described in detail in this paper together with a recent study on a depleted gas field in the North Sea considered for CO₂ sequestration. The particular case study shows that there is a limitation on maximum allowable well inclinations, 45° if aligning with the maximum horizontal stress direction and 65° if aligning with the minimum horizontal stress direction, beyond which wellbore failure would become critical while drilling. Evaluation of sanding risks indicates no sand control installations would be needed for injector wells. Fracturing and faulting assessments confirm that the fracturing pressure of caprock is significantly higher than the planned CO₂ injection and storage pressures for an ideal case, in which the total field horizontal stresses increase with the reservoir re-pressurization in a manner opposite to their reduction with the reservoir depletion. However, as the most pessimistic case of assuming the total horizontal stresses staying the same over the CO₂ injection, faulting could be reactivated on a fault with the least favorable geometry once the reservoir pressure reaches approximately 7.7 MPa. In addition, the initial CO₂ injection could lead to a high risk that a fault with a cohesion of less than 5.1 MPa could be activated due to the significant effect of reduced temperature on the field stresses around the injection site.     

Structural similarity and variety at the tips in a wide range of strike–slip faults: a review

Strike–slip faults are often accompanied by a variety of structures, particularly at their tips. The zones of additional fracturing are classified as tip‐damage zones. These zones can be subdivided into several different damage patterns based on the nature and orientation of faults and fractures developed. Damage zones at the ends of small strike–slip faults (mode II tips) develop wing cracks, horsetail splays, antithetic faults, synthetic branch faults and solution surfaces. Similar tip‐damage patterns are also commonly observed at larger (regional) scales, but with a dominance of faulting over tensile cracks and solution surfaces. Wing cracks and horsetail splays developed at small‐scale faults are replaced by normal faults in large‐scale faults. Antithetic faults and synthetic branch faults are observed at small and large scales. Thrust faults are developed at large scales, in a similar pattern to solution surfaces at a small scale. All these structures may show slightly different angular relationships to the master fault at small and large scale, but develop in response similar stress distribution and mechanics around the fault. Thus, mode II tip‐damage zones show similar patterns over a wide range of fault scales.     

准南逆冲褶皱带超压与逆冲断层持续活动

天山北缘准南地区的褶皱带为自新生代以来一直持续活动的逆冲构造带,由于逆冲断层的持续活动,形成了现今断层和相关褶皱。钻井资料显示,准南逆冲褶皱带内的超压层主要发育在古近纪安集海河组泥岩和紫泥泉子组泥岩之中,而该泥岩同时又成为逆冲断层发育的主滑脱面。通过多年来对准南地区地面地质调查、二维地震和三维地震资料的解释以及钻井证实,我们统计出准南逆冲褶皱带现存的逆冲断层倾角分别集中在两个区间: 30±5°和50±5°区间。应力分析表明,在持续挤压应力作用下,超压层(泥岩、页岩和煤系地层)中和超压层之下地层中发育的早期逆冲断层与晚期最大主压应力之间的夹角处在30±5°之间时,作用在断层面上的最大主应力与最小主应力比达到最小值,因此该断层最容易再次活动,形成最大的流体压力,因而断层周围的流体就会沿着最大主应力方向发生流动,断层本身就会成为流体运移的主要通道; 而早期逆冲断层与晚期最大主压应力之间的夹角处在50±5°之间时,作用在断层面上的最大主应力与最小主应力比较大,断层重新活动所需要的流体压力较高,导致断层作为流体运移的通道因被挤压而闭合。应力分析和钻井实测应力均指出,准南逆冲褶皱带发育的超压为挤压构造应力形成的超压。这些研究表明,准南逆冲褶皱带的逆冲断层持续活动,导致早期发育的断层在晚期应力作用下,断层倾角聚集在两个优势区间,油气沿最大主压应力方向运移,聚集油气则沿断层滑动面发育形成构造超压,导致该区域油气长期处于运移与聚集的动平衡状态。     

Geomechanical modelling to assess fault integrity at the CO2CRC Otway Project,Australia

This paper presents the first published 3D geomechanical modelling study of the CO2CRC Otway Project, located in the state of Victoria, Australia. The results of this work contribute to one of the main objectives of the CO2CRC, which is to demonstrate the feasibility of CO₂ storage in a depleted gas reservoir. With this aim in mind, a one-way coupled flow and geomechanics model is presented, with the capability of predicting changes to the in situ stress field caused by changes in reservoir pressure owing to CO₂ production and injection. A parametric study investigating the pore pressures required to reactivate key, reservoir-bounding faults has been conducted, and the results from the numerical simulation and analytical analysis are compared. The numerical simulation indicates that the critical pore fluid pressure to cause fault reactivation is 1.15 times the original pressure as opposed to 1.5 times for the comparable analytical model. Possible reasons for the differences between the numerical and analytical models can be ascribed to the higher degree of complexity incorporated in the numerical model. Heterogeneity in terms of lateral variations of hydrological and mechanical parameters, effect of topography, presence of faults and interaction between cells are considered to be the main sources for the different estimation of critical pore pressure. The numerical model, which incorporates this greater complexity, is able then to better describe the state of stress that acts in the subsurface compared with a simple 1D analytical model. Moreover, the reactivation pressures depend mainly on the state of stress described; therefore we suggest that numerical models be performed when possible.     

Field examples of variations in fault patterns at different scales

Three field examples are presented which show changes in fault patterns at different scales. Normal faults in Jurassic limestones in Somerset consist of zones of sub-parallel segments at the exposure-scale, but contain complex zones of brecciation at the decimetre-scale. Normal faults in chalk at Flamborough Head consist of a complex network of small faults which accommodate strain between a set of large faults. The different-sized faults at Flamborough Head have different geometries and histories, with the larger faults showing a phase of reverse reactivation. The faulting in the Sydney Basin, Australia, can be explained in terms of the evolution and reactivation of transfer zones between overstepping faults. These transfer zones can cause the deformation to appear to be more complex as the analysis becomes more detailed.
Much recent work on the scaling relationslups of faults assumes that self-similar fault patterns occur over a wide range of scales. The data presented in this paper, however, suggest that there are problems in using the deformation pattern at one scale to infer deformation at other scales. Ideally, any analysis should involve the study of a wide range of scales to overcome these problems.     

Transtensional deformation in the Lake Tahoe region, California and Nevada, USA

Dextral transtensional deformation is occurring along the Sierra Nevada–Great Basin boundary zone (SNGBBZ) at the eastern edge of the Sierra Nevada microplate. In the Lake Tahoe region of the SNGBBZ, transtension is partitioned spatially and temporally into domains of north–south striking normal faults and transitional domains with conjugate strike-slip faults. The normal fault domains, which have had large Holocene earthquakes but account only for background seismicity in the historic period, primarily accommodate east–west extension, while the transitional domains, which have had moderate Holocene and historic earthquakes and are currently seismically active, primarily record north–south shortening. Through partitioned slip, the upper crust in this region undergoes overall constrictional strain.Major fault zones within the Lake Tahoe basin include two normal fault zones: the northwest-trending Tahoe–Sierra frontal fault zone (TSFFZ) and the north-trending West Tahoe–Dollar Point fault zone. Most faults in these zones show eastside down displacements. Both of these fault zones show evidence of Holocene earthquakes but are relatively quiet seismically through the historic record. The northeast-trending North Tahoe–Incline Village fault zone is a major normal to sinistral-oblique fault zone. This fault zone shows evidence for large Holocene earthquakes and based on the historic record is seismically active at the microearthquake level. The zone forms the boundary between the Lake Tahoe normal fault domain to the south and the Truckee transition zone to the north.Several lines of evidence, including both geology and historic seismicity, indicate that the seismically active Truckee and Gardnerville transition zones, north and southeast of Lake Tahoe basin, respectively, are undergoing north–south shortening. In addition, the central Carson Range, a major north-trending range block between two large normal fault zones, shows internal fault patterns that suggest the range is undergoing north–south shortening in addition to east–west extension.A model capable of explaining the spatial and temporal partitioning of slip suggests that seismic behavior in the region alternates between two modes, one mode characterized by an east–west minimum principal stress and a north–south maximum principal stress as at present. In this mode, seismicity and small-scale faulting reflecting north–south shortening concentrate in mechanically weak transition zones with primarily strike-slip faulting in relatively small-magnitude events, and domains with major normal faults are relatively quiet. A second mode occurs after sufficient north–south shortening reduces the north–south S_hmax in magnitude until it is less than S_v, at which point S_v becomes the maximum principal stress. This second mode is then characterized by large earthquakes on major normal faults in the large normal fault domains, which dominate the overall moment release in the region, producing significant east–west extension.     

Interrelations of mesoscopic structures and strain across a small regional fold,Virginia Appalachians

Small regional folds, such as the Clover Hollow anticline of the Narrows thrust-sheet in southwest Virginia, U.S.A., are considered to be large buckle folds expressing lateral shortening above a subsurface décollement. Cleavage, mesoscopic and regional folds, and contraction faults have developed in these rocks under anchimetamorphic conditions, in a single, protracted deformation during thrust-sheet emplacement. The contraction faults dominate the structure at all scales. Three fault associations (isolated contraction faults, contraction faults in series and complex fault zones with intense folding) determine the pattern and intensity of local structures. Regional displacement transfer of strain along and across faults has produced local variations in structural style. Duplex-like systems of second-order faults terminate laterally into zones of intense folding and third-order faulting. Fold tightness, cleavage intensity, strain magnitude and total longitudinal strain (ε_T) are maximum in these regions. Contraction faults in this thrust-sheet have propagated along zones of high strain rate associated with mesoscopic folding and intense cleavage. Regional hinge migration, and greater structural complexity along the southeast limb of the Clover Hollow anticline, are considered to be due to emplacement of the adjacent thrust-sheet.     

Seal integrity and feasibility of CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> sequestration in the Teapot Dome EOR pilot: geomechanical site characterization

This paper reports a preliminary investigation of CO₂ sequestration and seal integrity at Teapot Dome oil field, Wyoming, USA, with the objective of predicting the potential risk of CO₂ leakage along reservoir-bounding faults. CO₂ injection into reservoirs creates anomalously high pore pressure at the top of the reservoir that could potentially hydraulically fracture the caprock or trigger slip on reservoir-bounding faults. The Tensleep Formation, a Pennsylvanian age eolian sandstone is evaluated as the target horizon for a pilot CO₂ EOR-carbon storage experiment, in a three-way closure trap against a bounding fault, termed the S1 fault. A preliminary geomechanical model of the Tensleep Formation has been developed to evaluate the potential for CO₂ injection inducing slip on the S1 fault and thus threatening seal integrity. Uncertainties in the stress tensor and fault geometry have been incorporated into the analysis using Monte Carlo simulation. The authors find that even the most pessimistic risk scenario would require ∼10 MPa of excess pressure to cause the S1 fault to reactivate and provide a potential leakage pathway. This would correspond to a CO₂ column height of ∼1,500 m, whereas the structural closure of the Tensleep Formation in the pilot injection area does not exceed 100 m. It is therefore apparent that CO₂ injection is not likely to compromise the S1 fault stability. Better constraint of the least principal stress is needed to establish a more reliable estimate of the maximum reservoir pressure required to hydrofracture the caprock.     

A simulation of upper crustal stresses for great and moderate thrust earthquakes of the Himalaya

We assume that great and moderate Himalayan earthquakes occur through reactivation of subhorizontal thrust faults by frictional failure under the action of stresses induced by Himalayan topography, isostasy related buoyancy forces, crustal overburden and plate tectonic causes. Estimates of stresses are based on two dimensional plane strain calculations using analytical formulae of elasticity theory and rock mechanics under suitable simplifying assumptions. Considerable attention is focussed on a point on the detachment at a depth of 17 km below mean sea level under the surface trace of the Main Central Thrust (MCT). According to recent views, great Himalayan earthquakes should nucleate in the detachment in the vicinity of such a point. Also many moderate earthquakes occur on the detachment similarly under the MCT. Vertical and horizontal normal stresses of 622 and 262 MPa and a corresponding shear stress of 26 MPa are estimated for this point due to topography, buoyancy and overburden. For fault friction coefficient varying between 0.3 to 1.0, estimates of plate tectonic stress required are in the range of 386 to 434 MPa, when the cumulative principal stresses are oriented favourably for reactivation of the detachment. Estimates of shear stress mobilized at the same point would be from 27 to 32 MPa for the identical range of fault friction coefficient. Our calculations suggest that presence of pore water in the fault zones is essential for reactivation. Pore pressure required is between 535 to 595 MPa for friction coefficient in the range of 0.3 to 1.0 and it is less than lithostatic stress of 603 MPa at the above point. For the specific nominal value of 0.65 for fault friction coefficient, the estimated values of plate tectonic stress, shear stress and pore pressure at the above point on the detachment are 410 MPa, 30 MPa and 580 MPa respectively. Similar estimates are obtained also for shallower points on the detachment up to the southern limit of the Outer Himalaya. Our estimates of the plate tectonic stress, shear stress and pore pressure for reactivation of upper crustal thrust faults compare favourably with those quoted in the literature.     

3D seismic analysis of complex faulting patterns above the Snapper Field,Gippsland Basin: implications for CO2 storage

Mechanical damage (e.g. faults and fractures) related to tectonic forces and/or variations in formation pore pressures may enable the leakage of fluids through otherwise effective seal rocks. Characterisation of faults and fractures within seals is therefore essential for the assessment of long-term trap integrity in potential CO₂ storage sites. 3D seismic reflection data are used to describe a previously unrecognised network of extensive, small Miocene-age faults with displacement of generally <30 m and lengths that vary between ～300 and 2500 m above the Snapper Field, in the Gippsland Basin. The Snapper Field is a nearly depleted oil and gas field that presents an attractive site for potential CO₂ storage due its structural closure and because it has effectively retained significant natural hydrocarbon (including CO₂) columns over geological time-scales. Volume-based seismic attributes reveal that this fault system is located within the Oligocene Lakes Entrance Formation of the Seaspray Group, which acts as the regional seal to the Latrobe Group reservoirs in the Gippsland Basin. Detailed analysis of fault lengths and linkages suggests that the Miocene faults are non-tectonic, polygonal faults, although the displacement analysis of fault segments reveals strong correlations with the both the structure of the underlying Top Latrobe surface and normal faults that segment the Latrobe Group reservoirs, suggesting that the development of this fault system has been influenced by underlying structures. The geological evidence for long-term retention of hydrocarbons within the Snapper Field suggests that this fault system has not compromised the integrity of the Lakes Entrance Formation seal, although elevated pore pressures during CO₂ injection could potentially lead to reactivation of these structures.     

The permeability of fault zones: a case study of the Dead Sea rift (Middle East)

Fault zone architecture plays an important role in flow regimes of hydrological systems. Fault zones can act as conduits, barriers, or conduits/barrier systems depending on their spatial architecture. The goal of this study is to determine the fault-zone permeability structure and its effect on the local hydrogeological system in the Dead Sea fault system. Permeability was measured on small-scale outcrop plug samples at four faults along the Dead Sea fault system, and large-scale slug tests in four boreholes, in different parts of the fault, at Yair fault in Israel. The research results show that values in the damage zone are two to five orders of magnitude higher than those of the fault core (~3.5?×?10^?10, 1?×?10^?15 m² respectively), resulting in an anisotropic permeability structure for the overall fault zone and preferable flow parallel to the fault. A set of injection tests in the Yair fault damage zone revealed a water-pressure-dependent behavior. The permeability of this zone increases when employing a higher water pressure in the fault fracture-dominated damage zone, due to the reopening of fractures.     

Numerical investigation of groundwater outbursts near faults in underground coal mines

Permeable geologic faults in the coal seam can cause intermittent production problems or unexpected amounts of groundwater outburst from the underlying aquifers. With the acknowledgment of the basic mechanism for groundwater outbursts, the groundwater outburst along the fault zones in coal mines are numerically investigated using RFPA, a numerical code based on FEM. The fracture initiation, propagation, and coalescence in the stressed strata and the seepage field evolution in the stress field are represented visually during the whole process of groundwater outburst. The numerically obtained damage evolution shows that the floor strata could be classified as three zones, i.e. mining induced fracture zone, intact zone and fault reactivation zone, in which the intact zone is the key part for resisting groundwater outburst and directly determines the effective thickness of water-resisting rock layer. With understanding of the evolution of stress field and seepage flow in floor strata, the groundwater outburst pathway is calibrated and the transformation of floor rock mass from water-resisting strata to outburst pathway is clearly illuminated. Moreover, it is shown that geometrical configuration, including inclination angle of faults and seam drop along faults, have an important influence on groundwater outburst. Finally, based on geological, hydrogeology survey and numerical results, the mechanism analysis of groundwater outburst in an engineering case is studied, which can provide significantly meaningful guides for the investigation on mechanism and prevention of groundwater outburst induced by faults in practice.     

Finite-element 3D modeling of stress patterns around a dipping fault

Stresses in a block around a dipping fracture simulating a damage zone of a fault are reconstructed by finite-element modeling. A fracture corresponding to a fault of different lengths, with its plane dipping at different angles, is assumed to follow a lithological interface and to experience either compression or shear. The stress associated with the destruction shows an asymmetrical pattern with different distances from the highest stress sites to the fault plane in the hanging and foot walls. As the dip angle decreases,the high-stress zone becomes wider in the hanging wall but its width changes negligibly in the foot wall.The length of the simulated fault and the deformation type affect only the magnitude of maximum stress,which remains asymmetrical relative to the fault plane. The Lh/Lfratio, where Lhand Lfare the widths of high-stress zones in the hanging and foot walls of the fault, respectively, is inversely proportional to the fault plane dip. The arithmetic mean of this ratio over different fault lengths in fractures subject to compression changes from 0.29 at a dip of 80°to 1.67 at 30°. In the case of shift displacement, ratios are increasing to 1.2 and 2.94, respectively.Usually they consider vertical fault planes and symmetry in a damage zone of faults. Following that assumption may cause errors in reconstructions of stress and fault patterns in areas of complex structural setting. According geological data, we know the structures are different and asymmetric in hanging and foot walls of fault. Thus, it is important to quantify zones of that asymmetry. The modeling results have to be taken into account in studies of natural faults, especially for practical applications in seismic risk mapping, engineering geology, hydrogeology, and tectonics.     

青藏公路及铁路沿线的活动构造与其次生灾害

基于对青藏公路及铁路沿线区域约63400km2范围内1∶10万地质环境遥感的调查研究结果,采用以ETM为主、重点地区以IKONOS为辅的遥感数据、遥感解译与地面验证相结合的技术方法在研究区解译出数百条断层。根据这些断层的延伸方向和分布位置可归纳为20条断裂带(RF),它们与以往以地面调查为主的断裂带(GF)基本吻合。研究区的断裂带基本上均为活动断裂带,且都存在发震断层,将已发生地震的震级和频率较高(Ms≥5至>8)的断裂带定为主要地震构造带。青藏线共有5个主要地震构造带,其中东昆仑地震构造带及当雄—羊八井地震构造带是研究区内可能对铁路工程建设及公路、铁路运行安全带来严重影响的最重要的地震构造带。滑坡、泥石流是青藏线活动构造的主要次生灾害。该区的活动断裂对滑坡分布有一定的影响,但并没有控制作用;地震构造不但控制了泥石流的分布,且地震活动对泥石流活动的触发作用也非常明显。     

Focal mechanism inversion in the Giudicarie–Lessini seismotectonic region (Southern Alps, Italy): Insights on tectonic stress and strain

A set of 41 focal mechanisms (1989–2006) from P-wave first polarities is computed from relocated seismic events in the Giudicarie–Lessini region (Southern Alps). Estimated hypocentral depths vary from 3.1 to 20.8 km, for duration magnitudes (M_D) in the range 2.7–5.1. Stress and strain inversions are performed for two seismotectonic zones, namely G (Giudicarie) and L (Lessini). This subdivision is supported by geological evidence, seismicity distribution, and focal mechanism types. The available number of data (16 in G, 22 in L) does not make possible any further subdivisions. Seismotectonic zones G and L are undergoing different kinematic regimes: thrust with strike-slip component in G, and strike-slip in L. Principal stress and strain axes in each sub-region show similar orientations. The direction of maximum horizontal compressive stress is roughly perpendicular to the thrust fronts along the Giudicarie Belt in zone G, and compatible with right-lateral strike-slip reactivation of the faults belonging to the Schio-Vicenza system in zone L. On the whole, kinematic regimes and horizontal stress orientations show a good fit with other stress data from focal mechanisms and breakouts and with geodetic strain rate axes.     

Fault-valve behaviour in optimally oriented shear zones: an example at the Revenge gold mine, Kambalda, Western Australia

Quartz vein systems developed in and adjacent to shear zones host major gold deposits in the Kambalda region of the Norseman–Wiluna greenstone belt. At the Revenge Mine, two groups of mineralised reverse shear zones formed as conjugate, near-optimally oriented sets during ESE subhorizontal shortening adjacent to a major transpressional shear system. The shear zones developed at temperatures of about 400°C in a transitional brittle–ductile regime. Deformation was associated with high fluid fluxes and involved fault-valve behaviour at transiently near-lithostatic fluid pressures. During progressive evolution of the shear system, early brittle and ductile deformation was overprinted by predominantly brittle deformation. Brittle shear failure was associated with fault dilation and the formation of fault-fill veins, particularly at fault bends and jogs. A transition from predominantly brittle shear failure to combined shear along faults and extension failure adjacent to faults occurred late during shear zone evolution and is interpreted as a response to a progressive decrease in maximum shear stress and a decrease in effective stresses. The formation of subhorizontal stylolites, locally subvertical extension veins and minor normal faults in association with thrust faulting, indicates episodic or transient reorientation of the near-field maximum principal stress from a subhorizontal to a near-vertical attitude during some fault-valve cycles. Local stress re-orientation is interpreted as resulting from near-total shear stress release and overshoot during some rupture events. Previously described fault-valve systems have formed predominantly in severely misoriented faults. The shear systems at Revenge Mine indicate that fault-valve action, and associated fluctuations in shear stress and fluid pressure, can influence the mechanical behaviour of optimally-oriented faults.     

The Variscan tectonic inheritance of the Upper Rhine Graben: evidence of reactivations in the Lias,Late Eocene–Oligocene up to the recent

Processing of gravity and magnetic maps shows that the basement of the Upper Rhine Graben area is characterized by a series of NE–SW trending discontinuities and elongated structures, identified in outcrops in the Vosges, Black Forest, and the Odenwald Mountains. They form a 40 km wide, N30–40° striking, sinistral wrench-zone that, in the Visean, shifted the Variscan and pre-Variscan structures by at least 43 km to the NE. Wrenching was associated with emplacement of several generations of plutonic bodies emplaced in the time range 340–325 Ma. The sub-vertical, NE–SW trending discontinuities in the basement acted as zones of weakness, susceptible to reactivation by subsequent tectonism. The first reactivation, marked by mineralizations and palaeomagnetic overprinting along NE–SW faults of the Vosges Mountains, results from the Liassic NW–SE extension contemporaneous with the break-up of Pangea. The major reactivation occurred during the Late Eocene N–S compression and the Early-Middle Oligocene E–W extension. The NE–SW striking basement discontinuities were successively reactivated as sinistral strike-slip faults, and as oblique normal faults. Elongated depocenters appear to form in association with reactivated Variscan wrench faults. Some of the recent earthquakes are located on NE–SW striking Variscan fault zones, and show sinistral strike-slip focal mechanisms with the same direction, suggesting also present reactivation.