Catastrophic Tohoku earthquake of March 11, 2011, in Japan

The results of the comparative analysis of parameters of the Tohoku earthquake (Honshu Island, Japan) of March 11, 2011, 05:46 UTC and its aftershocks are presented.     

On the GPS-based ionospheric perturbation after the Tohoku earthquake of March 11, 2011

Based on the data from the GPS receiving networks in Japan and America which have a high time resolution (2 min), two-dimensional (2D) distributions of the variations in the ionospheric total electron content (TEC) are constructed both close to and far from of the epicenter of the submarine earthquake of March 11, 2011 in Japan. Above the epicenter, a diverging multi-period disturbance appears after the main shock due to the acoustic gravity waves. Far from the epicenter, the wave trains associated with the tsunamigenic atmospheric internal gravity waves are revealed. These atmospheric waves significantly advance the arrival of the tsunami signal initially on the Hawaiian islands and then on the western coast of North America. The presence of the tsunami precursor in the form of atmospheric gravity waves is supported by the numerical calculations and by the analysis of the dispersion relation for the waves in the atmosphere. The detected ionospheric responses close and far from the epicenter can be used in the early tsunami warning systems.     

Geotechnical engineering aspects of the catastrophic Tohoku (Japan) earthquake of March 11, 2011: the review of first results

Geotechnical engineering aspects of the catastrophic earthquake, which occurred in Japan on March, 11, 2011 and called Tohoku earthquake are discussed. A review is presented of the first results obtained mainly by Japanese scientists based on records of seismic networks of Japan K-NET, Kik-net and on GPS data. The basic concepts of seismic zoning in Japan and the location of the Tohoku-oki earthquake on the seismic zoning maps are described, as well as models of the source process obtained by various authors based on teleseismic data, strong motion data, GPS data, and tsunami observations. The recorded peak accelerations and velocities and their correspondence to the current empirical attenuation curves are discussed. The records of the Tohoku earthquake made by Japanese seismic networks K-NET, Kik-net and some others represent unique seismological material and the most complete seismic database (including vertical array records) in the near-source zone of a strongest earthquake with magnitude M _w = 9. These data will be studied by seismologists all over the world for many years and, probably, they will answer many questions of geotechnical seismic engineering.     

Low frequency seismic noise before a magnitude 9.0 Tohoku earthquake on March 11, 2011

The dynamics of seismic noise before the catastrophic earthquake of March 11, 2011 in Japan is studied in a minute period range using the records of broadband IRIS stations. It is found that the dispersion of the noise and the number of asymmetric pulses recorded within 500 km from the epicenter of the earthquake have drastically increased 1.5 months before the event. This is the highest enhancement ever recorded by these stations during the same interval of the year for the past 15 years since the IRIS network started stably operating. No increase is revealed in the noise recorded beyond 1200 km from the epicenter. The pattern of decay in amplitudes of the anomalous noise with increasing distance from the epicenter to the corresponding stations likely indicates that the sources of the noise were located close to the source of the earthquake. The noise contains both regular and chaotic components.     

利用海啸数值模拟结果进行海底地震有限断层模型验证

基于地震有限断层模型进行海啸的数值模拟通常被用来估计海啸的到时、 波高等, 另一方面, 海啸数值模拟的结果也可以作为限定条件用来考察同一地震的不同断层模型之间的相对合理性。 采用国际上各地震研究机构在震后各自得出的不同的有限断层模型作为海啸源, 使用基于二维浅水波方程的海啸传播模型对2011年日本东北地震海啸的传播过程进行模拟, 以海啸模拟所得到的沿岸浪高分布、 平均波高、 最大波高等与实际观测值相比较, 进而判断由各有限断层模型所计算得到的海啸中哪个结果与实际的海啸情况更为符合, 由此推断断层模型的相对合理性。     

2011年3月11日日本宫城MW9.1地震的预滑与黏滑震相研究

实验室内的岩石黏滑实验表明：黏滑错动过程一般可分为预滑、黏滑和止滑三个阶段,其中黏滑过程往往不是一次单点错动过程,而是由多次黏滑错动过程组成,表现出在断层的不同部位多点黏滑错动的特征。
2011年3月11日日本宫城近海发生了M_W9.1大地震。对该地震在全球数字地震仪台网（GSN）的波形记录做了分析,在ERM台（Δ=3.8°）记录的Pn震相前约125.5 s处识别出预滑错动震相Xp;在GSN 98个台的长周期波形记录上识别出三次同震黏滑错动过程中激发出的三个同震黏滑错动震相Xs1、Xs2和Xs3,以及止滑过程中激发出的止滑面波震相XsQ和XsR。根据黏滑实验和观测结果,我们认为ERM台所处的地块在主震前约69.1 s时发生了一次临震预滑错动,激发出了预滑错动震相Xp。主震发生后与弹性破裂过程同时发生了第一次黏滑错动,激发出了黏滑错动震相Xs1;在弹性破裂开始后约27.5 s时发生了第二次黏滑错动,激发出了黏滑错动震相Xs2;在弹性破裂开始后约71.0 s时发生了第三次黏滑错动,激发出了黏滑错动震相Xs3;在弹性破裂开始后约93.1 s时黏滑错动幅度达到峰值Xsm。之后进入止滑阶段,止滑过程激发出了勒夫型长周期面波止滑震相XsQ和瑞雷型长周期面波止滑震相XsR。根据XsQ和XsR震相的周期普遍大于75 s的特征,我们认为XsQ和XsR可能是地幔内传播的面波,并给出XsQ和XsR面波的走时关系。根据主震发生后同震伴随有三个子黏滑错动过程的观测证据,认为此次M_W9.1大地震可能是黏滑错动和弹性破裂共同作用的结果。从地震记录图上识别出Xp震相有助于认识主震前的预滑错动过程,且有一定的前兆意义。研究Xs震相以及XsQ和XsR震相有助于认识同震黏滑错动过程并预判震灾损失。     

Stochastic coupled simulation of strong motion and tsunami for the 2011 Tohoku,Japan earthquake

This study conducts coupled simulation of strong motion and tsunami using stochastically generated earthquake source models. It is focused upon the 2011 Tohoku, Japan earthquake. The ground motion time-histories are simulated using the multiple-event stochastic finite-fault method, which takes into account multiple local rupture processes in strong motion generation areas. For tsunami simulation, multiple realizations of wave profiles are generated by evaluating nonlinear shallow water equations with run-up. Key objectives of this research are: (i) to investigate the sensitivity of strong motion and tsunami hazard parameters to asperities and strong motion generation areas, and (ii) to quantify the spatial variability and dependency of strong motion and tsunami predictions due to common earthquake sources. The investigations provide valuable insights in understanding the temporal and spatial impact of cascading earthquake hazards. Importantly, the study also develops an integrated strong motion and tsunami simulator, which is capable of capturing earthquake source uncertainty. Such an advanced numerical tool is necessary for assessing the performance of buildings and infrastructure that are subjected to cascading earthquake–tsunami hazards.     

Coastal Impacts of the March 11th Tohoku, Japan Tsunami in the Galapagos Islands

On March 11, 2011 at 5:46:23 UTC (March 10 11:46:23 PM Galapagos Local Time), the M_w 9.0 Great East Japan Earthquake occurred near the Tohoku region off the east coast of Japan, spawning a Pacific-wide tsunami. Approximately 12,000 km away, the Galapagos Islands experienced moderate tsunami impacts, including flooding, structural damage, and strong currents. In this paper, we present observations and measurements of the tsunami effects in the Galapagos, focusing on the four largest islands in the archipelago; (from west to east) Isabela, Santiagio, Santa Cruz, and San Cristobal. Access to the tsunami affected areas was one of the largest challenges of the field survey. Aside from approximately ten sandy beaches open to tourists, all other shoreline locations are restricted to anyone without a research permit; open cooperation with the Galapagos National Park provided the survey team complete access to the Islands coastlines. Survey locations were guided by numerical simulations of the tsunami performed prior to the field work. This numerical guidance accurately predicted the regions of highest impact, as well as regions of relatively low impact. Tide-corrected maximum tsunami heights were generally in the range of 3–4 m with the highest runup of 6 m measured in a small pocket beach on Isla Isabela. Puerto Ayora, on Santa Cruz Island, the largest harbor in the Galapagos experienced significant flooding and damage to structures located at the shoreline. A current meter moored inside the harbor recorded relatively weak tsunami currents of less than 0.3 m/s (0.6 knot) during the event. Comparisons with detailed numerical simulations suggest that these low current speed observations are most likely the result of data averaging at 20-min intervals and that maximum instantaneous current speeds were considerably larger. Currents in the Canal de Itabaca, a natural waterway between Santa Cruz Island and a smaller island offshore, were strong enough to displace multiple 5.5-ton navigation buoys. Numerical simulations indicate that currents in the Canal de Itabaca exceeded 4 m/s (~8 knots), a very large flow speed for a navigational waterway.     

Effects of the Tohoku tsunami of March 11, 2011 on the Pacific coast of Russia

The records of the Tohoku tsunami of March 11, 2011, obtained at the nearest Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) stations and the coastal telemetric recorders of the Russian Tsunami Warning System, are analyzed. Such parameters as tsunami arrival times, heights of the first and maximal waves, and predominant periods are presented. The eyewitness accounts and photographs of tsunami effects are presented. The tsunami height distribution along the coast of Kuril Islands is discussed.     

On the Application of Mwp in the Near Field and the March 11, 2011 Tohoku Earthquake

Tsunami Warning Centers issue rapid and accurate tsunami warnings to coastal populations by estimating the location and size of the causative earthquake as soon as possible after rupture initiation. Both US Tsunami Warning Centers have therefore been using Mwp to issue Tsunami Warnings 5–10 min after Earthquake origin time since 2002. However, because Mwp (Tsuboi et al., Bulletin of the Seismological society of America 85:606–613, 1995) is based on the far-field approximation to the P-wave displacement due to a double couple point source, we should only very carefully apply Mwp to data obtained in the near field, at distances of less than a few wavelengths from the fault. On the other hand, the surface waves from Great Earthquakes, including those that occur just offshore of populated areas, such as the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, clip seismographs located near the fault. Because the first arriving P-waves from such large events are often on scale, Mwp should provide useful information, even for these Great Earthquakes. We therefore calculate Mwp from 18 unclipped STS-1 broadband P-wave seismograms, recorded at 2–15° distance from the Tohoku epicenter to determine if Mwp can usefully estimate Mw for this earthquake, using data obtained close to the epicenter. In this case there should be a good chance to get reliable Mwp values for stations at epicentral distances of 9–10°, since the source duration for the Tohoku earthquake is less than 200 s and the time window used to estimate Mwp is 120 s in duration. Our analysis indicates that Mwp does indeed give reliable results (Mw ~ 9.1) beginning at about 11° distance from the epicenter. The values of Mwp from seismic waveforms obtained at 11–15° epicentral distance from the Mw 9.1 off the east coast of Tohuku earthquake of March 11, 2011 fell within the range 9.1–9.3, and were available within 4–5 min after origin time. Even the Mwp values of 7.7–8.4, obtained at less than 5° epicentral distance, exceed the PTWC’s threshold of Mw 7.6 for issuing a regional tsunami warning to coastal populations within 1,000 km of the epicenter, and of Mw 6.9 for issuing a local tsunami warning to the coastal populations of Hawaii.     

Modeling the transport and accumulation floating debris generated by the 11 March 2011 Tohoku tsunami

A global ocean circulation model is coupled to a particle-tracking model to simulate the transport of floating debris washed into the North Pacific Ocean by the Tohoku tsunami. A release scenario for the tsunami debris is based on coastal population and measured tsunami runup. Archived 2011/2012 hindcast current data is used to model the transport of debris since the tsunami, while data from 2008 to 2012 is used to investigate the distribution of debris on timescales up to 4 years. The vast amount of debris pushed into ocean likely represents thousands of years worth of ‘normal’ litter flux from Japan’s urbanized coastline. This is important since a significant fraction of the debris will be comprised of plastics, some of which will degrade into tiny particles and be consumed by marine organisms, thereby allowing adsorbed organic pollutants to enter our food supply in quantities much higher than present.     

The 11 March 2011 Tohoku Tsunami Survey in Rikuzentakata and Comparison with Historical Events

On 11 March 2011, a moment magnitude M _w = 9.0 earthquake occurred off the Japan Tohoku coast causing catastrophic damage and loss of human lives. In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake, we conducted the reconnaissance survey in the city of Rikuzentakata, Japan. In comparison with three previous historical tsunamis impacting the same region, the 2011 event presented the largest values with respect to the tsunami height, the inundation area and the inundation distance. A representative tsunami height of 15 m was recorded in Rikuzentakata, with increased heights of 20 m around rocky headlands. In terms of the inundation area, the 2011 Tohoku tsunami exceeded by almost 2.6 times the area flooded by the 1960 Chilean tsunami, which ranks second among the four events compared. The maximum tsunami inundation distance was 8.1 km along the Kesen River, exceeding the 1933 Showa and 1960 Chilean tsunami inundations by factors of 6.2 and 2.7, respectively. The overland tsunami inundation distance was less than 2 km. The tsunami inundation height linearly decreased along the Kesen River at a rate of approximately 1 m/km. Nevertheless, the measured inland tsunami heights exhibit significant variations on local and regional scales. A designated “tsunami control forest” planted with a cross-shore width of about 200 m along a 2 km stretch of Rikuzentakata coastline was completely overrun and failed to protect the local community during this extreme event. Similarly, many designated tsunami shelters were too low and were overwashed by tsunami waves, thereby failing to provide shelter for evacuees—a risk that had been underestimated.     

Ground motion characteristics and shaking damage of the 11th March 2011 M w9.0 Great East Japan earthquake

A catastrophic M _w9.0 earthquake and subsequent giant tsunami struck the Tōhoku and Kanto regions of Japan on 11th March 2011, causing tremendous casualties, massive damage to structures and infrastructure, and huge economic loss. This event has revealed weakness and vulnerability of urban cities and modern society in Japan, which were thought to be one of the most earthquake-prepared nations in the world. Nevertheless, recorded ground motion data from this event offer invaluable information and opportunity; their unique features include very strong short-period spectral content, long duration, and effects due to local asperities as well as direction of rupture/wave propagation. Aiming at gaining useful experience from this tragic event, Earthquake Engineering Field Investigation Team (EEFIT) organised and dispatched a team to the Tōhoku region of Japan. During the EEFIT mission, ground shaking damage surveys were conducted in Sendai, Shirakawa, and Sukagawa, where the Japan Meteorological Agency intensity of 6+ was observed and instrumentally recorded ground motion data were available. The damage survey results identify the key factors for severe shaking damage, such as insufficient lateral reinforcement and detailing in structural columns from structural capacity viewpoint and rich spectral content of ground shaking in the intermediate vibration period range from seismic demand viewpoint. Importantly, inclusion of several ground motion parameters, such as nonlinear structural response, in shaking damage surveys, can improve the correlation of observed ground motion with shaking damage and therefore enhance existing indicators of potential damage.     

The response of the electromagnetic field to the catastrophic earthquake of March 11, 2011

The electric and magnetic variations observed during the earthquake of March 11, 2011 that occurred in the Pacific close to the northeastern coast of Honshu Island in Japan are analyzed. The variations in the electric voltage were measured at the decommissioned submarine telecommunication cable laid on the bed of the Sea of Japan. The neighboring observatories recorded the anomalous geomagnetic variations during the studied time interval; the sources and spatial location of these anomalies are studied. The seismic signals were identified from the seismograms recorded by the broadband seismometer STS-2 at the nearest seismic station.

     

On the earthquake of March 11, 2011 near the northeastern coast of Honshu Island

The paper addresses the interpretation of the location, type, and size of the source for the earth-quake of March 11, 2011. The source—a subvertical reverse fault trending in the azimuth of ∼25° along the island arc—is located in the middle part of the Pacific slope of Honshu Island, between 38°–38.5°N and 35.5°N. The length of the source, about 350 km, approximately corresponds to a magnitude ∼8.7 earthquake. In the north, the source is bounded by a sublatitudinal reverse fault, which generated an earthquake with magnitude 7.2–7.5 in 1978. On this segment of the Pacific slope of Honshu Island, there are probably another one or a few other large seismic sources, which are still latent. They are longitudinal reverse faults, which are comparable in scale with the source of the March, 2011 earthquake. The recurrence period of the maximal earthquakes in such sources is more than 1000 years.     

M_W9 Tohoku earthquake in 2011 in Japan: precursors uncovered by natural time analysis

This paper reviews the precursory phenomena of the 2011 MW9 Tohoku earthquake in Japan that emerge solely when we analyze the seismicity data in a new time domain termed natural time. If we do not consider this analysis, important precursory changes cannot be identified and hence are missed. Natural time analysis has the privilege that enables the introduction of an order parameter of seismicity. In this frame, we find that the fluctuations of this parameter exhibit an unprecedented characteristic change, i.e., an evident minimum, approximately two months before Tohoku earthquake, which strikingly is almost simultaneous with unique anomalous geomagnetic field variations recorded mainly on the z component. This is consistent with our finding that such a characteristic change in seismicity appears when a seismic electric signal(SES) activity of the VAN method(from the initials of Varotsos, Alexopoulos, Nomicos) initiates, and provides a direct confirmation of the physical interconnection between SES and seismicity.     

The response of the electromagnetic field to the catastrophic earthquake of March 11, 2011

The electric and magnetic variations observed during the earthquake of March 11, 2011 that occurred in the Pacific close to the northeastern coast of Honshu Island in Japan are analyzed. The variations in the electric voltage were measured at the decommissioned submarine telecommunication cable laid on the bed of the Sea of Japan. The neighboring observatories recorded the anomalous geomagnetic variations during the studied time interval; the sources and spatial location of these anomalies are studied. The seismic signals were identified from the seismograms recorded by the broadband seismometer STS-2 at the nearest seismic station.     

Liquefaction of soil in the Tokyo Bay area from the 2011 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake

Immediately following the 11th March 2011 M_w 9.0 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake, a field investigation was carried out around the Tokyo Bay area. This paper provides first-hand observations (before or just at the onset of repair) of widespread liquefaction and the associated effects. Observations related to uplift of manholes, settlement of ground, performance of buildings and bridges and the effects of ground improvements are also presented. Recorded ground motions near the Tokyo Bay area were analysed to understand their key characteristics (large amplitude and long duration). Lessons learnt are also presented.