Quaternary tectonics and large-scale gravitational deformations with evidence of rock-slide displacements in the Central Apennines (central Italy)

Eight cases of large-scale gravitational movements (with evidence of rock-slide type displacements) evolving close to Quaternary faults have been analysed in the Central Apennines. Geomorphological and structural surveys have defined the relationship between the gravitational displacements and the tectonically-controlled modifications of the landscape. The evolution of all the investigated cases has been conditioned by the presence of fault planes located along the mountain slopes. In most cases (Mt. Cefalone, Cima della Fossa, Villavallelonga, Casali d'Aschi, Gioia dei Marsi), the faults played or are playing a primary role in increasing the local relief and their activity represents the main geomorphic factor conditioning the gravitational movements. This kind of relationship has been observed along mountain slopes bordering depressions which have not been drained for most of their geomorphic history or have been characterised by an evolution of the hydrographic network that has been conditioned only by the local tectonic subsidence. In such cases, the gravitational movements develop in the footwalls of the faults. In other cases (Fiamignano, Pescasseroli) the faults have played a passive role, since they only bound the sliding masses and coincide with the surficial expressions of the sliding planes. Therefore, the gravitational displacements develop in the hangingwall of the faults. The evolution is conditioned by the incision of the hydrographic network in response to regional Quaternary uplift. The illustrated case studies provide a wide range of examples of the gravitational response of slopes to the modifications of the landscape due to linear and areal tectonics. The identification of the geomorphic traces of the large-scale gravitational movements along fault-controlled mountain fronts has implications for hazard, particularly for the evolution of the displacement. The quantitative analysis of the vertical displacements and data on the characteristics of the surface breaking during historical earthquakes demonstrate that along-fault offsets strongly increases where the unstable large-scale rock masses are located. Therefore, the large coseismic vertical offset may represent a major problem for the displacement of utilities and may represent a potential cause for the sudden and catastrophic evolution of the gravitational movement.     

Influence of structural framework on mountain slope deformation in the Maiella anticline (Central Apennines, Italy)

Relationships between tectonic framework and gravity-driven phenomena have been investigated in an area of the Central Apennines (Italy) characterised by high relief. The north–south, half-dome shaped Maiella anticline lies in the easternmost part of the Apennine fold-and-thrust belt. Its backlimb is bordered by the Caramanico Fault, a normal fault with a maximum downthrown of about 3.5 km that separates the western slope of the Maiella Massif from the Caramanico Valley. The southwestern Maiella area is affected by deep-seated gravitational slope deformation indicated by major double crest lines, down-hill and up-hill facing scarps, a pattern of crossing trenches, bulging at the base of slopes and the presence of different types of landslide and talus slope deposits.The onset and development of deep-seated gravitational slope deformations and the location of Quaternary, massive rockslope failures have been strongly influenced by the structural framework and tectonic pattern of the anticline. Deep-seated gravitational slope deformation at Mt. Macellaro–Mt. Amaro ridge has developed along the Maiella western, reverse slope in correspondence with the anticline axial culmination; it is bordered at the rear by a NNW–SSE oriented, dextral, strike-slip fault zone and has an E–W direction of rock mass deformation. Closer to the southern plunging area of the anticline, gravity-driven phenomena show instead a N–S and NW–SE direction, influenced by bedding attitude.3D topographic models illustrate the relationship between deep-seated gravitational slope deformation and massive rockslope failures. The Campo di Giove rock avalanche, a huge Quaternary failure event, was the result of an instantaneous collapse on a mountaine slope affected by a long-term gravity-driven deformation.     

Coastal processes and cliff recession between Gabicce and Pesaro (northern Adriatic Sea): a case history

Cliff recession on the high rocky coast between Gabicce and Pesaro Adriatic sea causes a wide range of mass movement processes on the whole slope, affecting both the bedrock and the overburden. The outcropping late Miocene rock formations are represented by marls, marly limestones, dark laminated mudstones and bedded sandstones and marls. Mass movements are common because of stratification and discontinuities in the rocks that, together with the presence of groundwater and weathering processes, reduce the overall strength of the slopes. A model for the evolution of this coastal area is proposed, which involves cyclic basal erosion, followed by mass movement that favours debris accumulation at the base of the cliff. The longshore currents have to then remove the material before a new cycle can begin.     

Evolution of a bank failure along the River Danube at Dunaszekcső, Hungary

The banks of the River Danube are one of the most susceptible areas to mass wasting in Hungary. In 2007, a large slump began to develop along the Danube at Dunaszekcső and jeopardized properties on land and navigation in the river. Several factors such as geological, hydrogeological and morphological conditions, recurrent flooding and erosion by the Danube led to a gradual development of the large rotational slide. Slope failure has been monitored using GPS, precise levelling techniques and tiltmeters since October 2007. The expected location of the maximum lateral displacement and extrusion was indicated by GPS measurements from the middle of November 2007. The main phase of the slope failure evolution, i.e. the rapid movement on 12 February 2008 was indicated by accelerated tilting of the southern moving block prior to slumping. Small rise of the relatively stable part of the slope was measured after the rapid movements, which may be explained either by the elastic rebound along the slip surface, or by the intrusion of some plastic material into the lower section of the slope.Comparison of geodetic datasets and field observations with the timing of rainfall and water level changes of the Danube suggested that hydrological properties (subsurface flow processes, soil physical properties, infiltration, and perched water table) were primarily responsible for initiation of the studied slump. A model of slope failure evolution is proposed here based on the monitoring and field observations.     

Evolution stages of large deep-seated landslides at the front of a subalpine meridional chain (Maritime-Alps, France)

Studying long term-evolution of gravitational slope evolution is a key to understanding deep-seated landslide processes. This paper deals with three large Deep-Seated Landslides (DSLs) at a front of a subalpine meridional chain, on the “La Marbrière” slope near the town of Grasse (Alpes-Maritimes, France). The geological framework controlling the stability and morphology of the DSLs is associated with thick and tamped Triassic layers of mudstone with gypsum overlain by highly faulted Jurassic limestone. Gravitational deformation affects the entire slope, involving a movement of about 1.1 × 10⁸ m³ of rock material. It creates large disturbances in landscape morphology, such as scarps, counter-slope scarps, trenches and other typical gravitational morpho-structures. Geomorphological mapping coupled with deep electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) reveals a strong correlation between these morpho-structures and inherited brittle tectonic features. This observation relies on spatial and geometrical relations (on the surface and at the depth of more than 150 m, checked by ERT) between the most persistent fault and the gravitational morpho-structures. The specific distribution of the morpho-structures on the basis of their morphological typologies and variations in the stage of evolution of three DSLs provides an interpretation of their kinematics during the last 400 ka. It appears that soft substratums combined with inherited persistent anisotropies are key factors in the development of the DSLs. Indeed, outflow of mudstone due to the lithostatic pressure imposed by individual limestone compartments has led to general slope subsidence. Then, a progressive toppling of a rock mass may have led to the catastrophic rock collapse along bedding planes.The evolution of the DSLs can be divided into three distinct stages represented by three zones: a young collapse stage (zone 1), a pre-collapse stage (zone 2) and an old mature stage (> 400 ka, zone 3). As the DSLs occur on the same slope and in the same geological context, this area offers interesting perspectives for understanding factors controlling the long-term gravitational evolution of slopes.     

丹霞地貌的坡地形态演化——以浙江新昌丹霞地貌为例

在对新昌丹霞地貌进行调查、研究并对国内外的坡地研究回顾的基础上,对丹霞地貌的坡地形态、组成和演化方式及成因进行分析.丹霞地貌坡地在形态和演化方式上的特点比较符合King的坡地理论,在形态组成上可以分为凸形面、自由面、搬运坡和凹形面4部分,在演化上以平行后退和坡地替代两种方式为主.丹霞坡地的类型根据发育阶段可分为幼年期陡壁形态、中年期King型完整King模式形态及老年期丘陵坡地形态.丹霞坡地地貌演化的过程是自由面逐渐后退、缩小的过程,丹霞坡地在坡地退行速度上远小于其他现代坡地.     

The landslide response of alpine basins to post-Little Ice Age glacial thinning and retreat in southwestern British Columbia

The role of post-Little Ice Age (LIA) Neoglacial retreat on landslide activity is investigated in 19 alpine basins along the upper Lillooet River Valley, British Columbia. We examine how Neoglacial scouring and glacial recession have modified hillslope form and slope stability, and construct a decision-making flowchart to identify landslide hazards associated with glacial retreat. This work is based on field mapping, GIS analysis, statistical associations between landslides and terrain attributes, and a comparison between Neoglaciated and non-Neoglaciated terrain within each basin.The bedrock landslide response to glacial retreat varies appreciably according to lithology and the extent of glacial scour below the LIA trimline. Valleys carved in weak Quaternary volcanics show significant erosional oversteepening and contain deep-seated slope movement features, active rock fall, rock slides, and rock avalanches near glacial trimlines. Basins in stronger granitic rock rarely show increased bedrock instability resulting from post-LIA retreat, except for shallow-seated rock slides along some trimlines and failures on previously unstable slopes. In surficial materials, landslides associated with post-LIA retreat originate in till or colluvium, as debris slides or debris avalanches, and are concentrated along lateral moraines or glacial trimlines.Significant spatial association was also observed between recent catastrophic failures, gravitational slope deformation, and slopes that were oversteepened then debuttressed by glacial erosion. Eight out of nine catastrophic rock slope failures occurred just above glacial trimlines and all occurred in areas with a previous history of deep-seated gravitational slope movement, implying that this type of deformation is a precursor to catastrophic detachment.     

A giant deep-seated slope deformation in the Italian Alps studied by paleoseismological and morphometric techniques

This work proves the existence of a large deep-seated gravitational slope deformation (DGSD) in a hilly region of the southwestern Alps, whereas DGSD are usually linked with high relief energy in mountain environments. Moreover, we describe the usefulness of applying paleoseismological techniques by means of trench excavation to date and understand the deformation history and genesis of recent morphostructures, and we found evidence of causative relationships between DGSD and surface landslides. The studied DGSD of Mt. Croce della Tola–Mt. Scincina, Italy, is the largest of the western Alps: it is 7-km long and involves a minimum area of 16 km² with a volume ≥3.5 km³ probably extending further NE beneath Lake Maggiore surface. Several parallel scarps, representing the surface expression of slip-planes, affect the upper part of the slope, whereas the lower part presents a convex profile. DGSD at Mt. Croce della Tola started in the last interglacial period (120–40 ka BP) and the following glacial phase was not able to significantly modify the general slope geometry. Post-glacial deformation also occurred, especially at Mt. Scincina, after 25 ka BP. Post-glacial and active surface landslides developed on the convex lower part of the slope, suggesting that they resulted from instability due to the new profile assumed by the slopes during the deep-seated deformation. The occurrence of Mt. Scincina DGSD with a very low topographic gradient is interpreted as an effect induced by on other large DGSD.     

南迦巴瓦峰与托木尔峰山地垂直自然带的比较

南迦巴瓦峰地处喜马拉雅山脉东端雅鲁藏布江大拐弯的内侧，托木尔峰地处天山山脉的西端，二者独特的自然地理特征及其高大的山体为山地垂直自然带谱的形成和发展提从了十分有利的自然环境，发育了相当完整的山地垂直系列。比较二者的垂直带谱，可以发现无论在垂直带谱的形成条件，基带，性质和结构类型，还是景观特征，垂直分异影响因素及南北坡差异程度等方面，都存在着较大的差异。南峰垂直带谱为以森林－草原－荒漠土壤系列为特征的季风性湿润，法湿润带谱系统，垂直分异的主导因素为温度；托峰垂直带谱为以荒漠－－草原－荒漠土壤系列为特征的大陆性干旱带谱系统，垂直分异的主导因素为湿度。不同的垂直自然带特征决定了不同的资源开发利用和保护措施。     

Rock slope failure and landscape evolution in the Caledonian Mountains, as exemplified in the Abisko area, northern Sweden

Paraglacial rock slope failure (RSF) is here studied as a locally major contributor to mountain landscape evolution in the Caledonian ranges. Dense RSF clusters exist in Scotland and Norway, but overall RSF distribution in Scandinavia is poorly known. In the Abisko area, air photo scrutiny confirms the reported incidence of sparse but significant RSF. In the Kärkevagge complex, the Rissa RSF is one of the largest in northern Europe, with a scar volume of 42 Mm3. The well–known Giant Boulder Deposit (GBD) is a rock avalanche emanating from the Rissa RSF scar, the interpretation of wholesale valley wall retreat at deglaciation being discounted. In the adjacent valley of Vassivagge, a major RSF on Vuoitasrita has a similar area and morpholocation, but lacks a GBD. It has consumed 5–10% of the relict preglacial mountain surface. Both RSFs are near incipient watershed breaches in valleys which may have undergone vigorous enlargement during the last stadial. Glaciation history may explain spatial incidence as well as neotectonic and other triggers. The localised geomorphic impact of RSF in the Abisko mountains is high by comparison with contemporary slope processes. The cumulative impact of paraglacial RSF over the Quaternary may have been considerable, and RSF may be an indicator of concentrated late–stage glacial erosion.     

Rock slope failure and landscape evolution in the Caledonian Mountains, as exemplified in the Abisko area, northern Sweden

Paraglacial rock slope failure (RSF) is here studied as a locally major contributor to mountain landscape evolution in the Caledonian ranges. Dense RSF clusters exist in Scotland and Norway, but overall RSF distribution in Scandinavia is poorly known. In the Abisko area, air photo scrutiny confirms the reported incidence of sparse but significant RSF. In the Kärkevagge complex, the Rissa RSF is one of the largest in northern Europe, with a scar volume of 42 Mm3. The well–known Giant Boulder Deposit (GBD) is a rock avalanche emanating from the Rissa RSF scar, the interpretation of wholesale valley wall retreat at deglaciation being discounted. In the adjacent valley of Vassivagge, a major RSF on Vuoitasrita has a similar area and morpholocation, but lacks a GBD. It has consumed 5–10% of the relict preglacial mountain surface. Both RSFs are near incipient watershed breaches in valleys which may have undergone vigorous enlargement during the last stadial. Glaciation history may explain spatial incidence as well as neotectonic and other triggers. The localised geomorphic impact of RSF in the Abisko mountains is high by comparison with contemporary slope processes. The cumulative impact of paraglacial RSF over the Quaternary may have been considerable, and RSF may be an indicator of concentrated late–stage glacial erosion.     

SLOPE EVOLUTION ON ABANDONED SPOIL BANKS IN EASTERN OKLAHOMA

Unreclaimed strip mine dumps near Henryetta, Oklahoma were employed as a natural laboratory for the study of slope evolution. These dumps were created by similar technologies and from similar materials but at different times. Modern, 30-year-old and 60-year-old slopes were compared through morphometric analysis and by the direct measurement of current rates of denudation. Slope evolution may be generalized as slope decline. This was effected through reduction of the slope crest, burial of the slope foot, and extension of the upper convexity and lower concavity at the expense of the rectilinear main slope of the original mine dump. There was a progressive reduction in rates of surface erosion, and the balance between weathering and suffosion became skewed towards the latter on the oldest dumps.     

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF LATE QUATERNARY PARAGLACIAL ROCK-SLOPE FAILURES ON SKIDDAW GROUP TERRAIN, LAKE DISTRICT, NORTHWEST ENGLAND

ABSTRACT. Eight relict rock-slope failures (RSFs) on Skiddaw Group terrain in the Lake District, northwest England, are described. Five of the failures are rockslides, one is a product of slope deformation, and two are compound features with evidence for sliding and deformation in different sectors. As none appears to have been overrun and modified by glacier ice it is concluded that they all post-date the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM ; c. 21 ± 3 cal. ka bp ). Slope stress readjustments resulting from glacial and deglacial influences are considered to have weakened the slopes, and application of the term paraglacial is appropriate. Permafrost aggradation and degradation, seismic activity and fluvial erosion are among processes that may have contributed to failure at certain sites. The failures are significant as potential debris sources during future ice advances, contributing to valley widening and cirque enlargement and, possibly, for acting as sites of cirque initiation. Previously, Skiddaw Group rocks have been regarded as homogeneous and of limited resistance to the weathering and erosion associated with Quaternary glacial, periglacial and fluvial processes. These characteristics and processes have been used to explain the steep smooth slopes and rounded hills that dominate Skiddaw Group terrain. Rock-slope failure has also helped shape this terrain and should be incorporated in future interpretations of landscape development.     

Topography of a composite relict rock glacier, Ślęża Massif, SW Poland

A detailed geodetic survey and, additionally, a map of slope covers have been carried out for a composite relict rock glacier on the slopes of Mt ?l??a (718 m a.s.l.), Sudetic Foreland, SW Poland. The survey allows one to distinguish the mobilisation, transition and accumulation zones and to define geomorphic features diagnostic for relict rock glaciers such as lateral ridges standing above a central depression, steep margins of the landforms in the transition and accumulation zones, as well as absence of distinct head scarps above. Furthermore, it indicates that the present‐day hydrographic pattern on the surface of relict rock glaciers has been superimposed on the relief inherited from the active landforms. The topography indicates that tension prevailed rather than compression during the development of the rock glaciers. Some of the features, such as small lateral lobes, developed probably as a result of the compressive flow, however. The pattern of the slope cover shows that it developed during activity of the rock glaciers and been modified afterwards due to solifluction.     

东北低山丘陵典型区侵蚀沟分布特征及其地形影响研究

东北低山丘陵区是重要的粮食主产区和商品粮基地,高强度的农业垦殖造成了严重的水土流失,侵蚀沟危害日益加剧。选择东辽河上游106.5 km²的区域为研究区,基于分辨率2 m的遥感影像,在GIS人工预判读侵蚀沟的基础上,野外实地验证并测量了研究区内长度≥50 m、且深度≥0.5 m的侵蚀沟的几何参数与经纬度;基于DEM获取了侵蚀沟所在坡面的坡度、坡向和高程等空间信息;分析了研究区侵蚀沟的基本特征与时空演化趋势,探讨了坡度和坡向对侵蚀沟发育的影响。结果表明：① 目前研究区已形成侵蚀沟322条,分布密度为3.0条/km²,沟壑密度为0.8 km/km²,割裂度为1.4%,侵蚀沟发展速度快,沟蚀强度已达强烈程度,应引起足够重视。② 侵蚀沟主要分布在6°~9°的坡耕地上,坡度对沟蚀的影响明显,坡耕地高强度垦殖是沟蚀加剧的主要驱动力;③ 阳坡（S、E）上侵蚀沟分布相对较多,而阴坡（N）上侵蚀沟分布最少,坡向对沟蚀也有一定影响。研究成果为认识东北低山丘陵区侵蚀沟发生与演化提供了科学数据。     

Regional soil erosion risk mapping in Lebanon

Soil erosion by water is one of the major causes of land degradation in Lebanon. The problem has not yet been treated in detail although it affects vast areas. This study elaborates a model for mapping soil erosion risk in a representative area of Lebanon at a scale of 1:100,000 using a spatial database and GIS. First, three basic maps were derived: (1) runoff potential obtained from mean annual precipitation, soil-water retention capacity and soil/rock infiltration capacity; (2) landscape sensitivity based on vegetal cover, drainage density and slope; and (3) erodibility of rock and soil. Then two thematic maps were derived: potential sensitivity to erosion obtained from the runoff potential and landscape sensitivity maps, and erosion risk based on the potential erosion and erodibility maps. The risk map corresponds well to field observations on the occurrence of rills and gullies. The model used seems to be applicable to other areas of Lebanon, constituting a tool for soil conservation planning and sustainable management.     

Cosmogenic Be dating of a sackung and its faulted rock glaciers, in the Alps of Savoy (France)

Sackungs are the largest gravitational deformation observed in mountains. They are characterized by the long-term slowness of the movements, but their mechanism is still not well understood. Nowadays cosmic ray exposure (CRE) dating methods allow dating the morphologic structures involved in sackung and can contribute at the understanding of their origin. In the Alps, the 5.3 km long Arcs sackung initiated during the activity of rock glaciers. Three samples from these faulted rock glaciers provide their first CRE ages and show that at 2000 m elevation these block accumulations moved during the Younger Dryas and stopped in early Holocene. Six ¹⁰Be ages of fault scarps show that the Arcs sackung lasted only a few thousand years and stopped at about 8462 ± 432 ¹⁰Be yr. They also reveal that deformation migrated upslope in agreement with a mechanism of flexural toppling of vertical layers. This unique and long gravitational event, characterized by migration of the deformation, does not support earthquake shaking as triggering mechanism for individual faults. It shows that, in the upper Isère valley, slope deformation was delayed of several thousand years after glacial debuttressing, and is not anymore active despite its fresh morphology.     

Modelling of pore pressure evolution associated with sedimentation and uplift in sedimentary basins

Unconformities, which represent either periods of interruption of sedimentation or, in most cases events characterized by deposition and subsequent erosion, are commonplace geological phenomena in sedimentary basins, and will affect the pore pressure evolution of the basin fill. The effect of unconformities on pore pressure, as well as on sediment compaction and on burial processes is studied using a numerical basin model. For coarse sediments, which are permeable so that their pore pressure always remains nearly hydrostatic, the effects of both pure deposition interruption (hiatus) and deposition-erosion events are negligible for pore pressure evolution. However, for fine-grained sediments, unconformities can modify the pore pressure and the stress state to varying degrees. The results show that the rate of removal of overlying sediments, the permeability of sediments and time play important roles in the pore pressure evolution. In the East Slope of the Ordos Basin (China), in which overpressure has not been detected in deep wells, the modelling results suggest that the large-scale erosion occurring in the Late Cretaceous and in the Tertiary may have removed high overpressure existing in the basin before the erosion.     

The changing Patagonian landscape: Erosion and westward sediment transfer paths in northern Patagonia during the Middle and Late Pleistocene

Pleistocene glaciations have promoted important landscape transformations as a result of high rates of erosion and rapid sediment evacuation to adjacent marine basins. In the Patagonian Andes the role of the Patagonian Ice Sheet on landscape evolution, in particular the spatial patterns of glacial erosion and its influence on sediment fluxes, is poorly documented. Here, we investigate the Middle and Late Pleistocene sedimentary record of the continental slope from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 861, offshore Patagonia (46°S), to evaluate the link between glaciations, mountain range erosion and continental margin strata formation. Petrographic analysis of the sand-size fraction (0.063–2 mm) and ɛNd and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr measurements in the silt-size fraction (10–63 µm) indicate that glacial erosion over the last 350,000 years has focused within the Patagonian Batholith, with a minor influence of a proximal source to the drilling site, the Chonos Metamorphic Complex. This shows that erosion has focused in the core of the northern Patagonian Andes, coinciding roughly with the location of the Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone and the zone of concentrated precipitation during glaciations, suggesting a combined climatic and structural control on glacial erosion. Temporal variation in the provenance signal is contemporaneous with a marked change in the stratigraphy of ODP Site 861 that occurred after the glaciation of MIS 8 (~240 kyr ago). Before MIS 8, a restricted provenance signal and coarse lithofacies accumulated on the continental slope indicates spatially restricted erosion and efficient transfer of sediment towards the ocean. In contrast, very high provenance variability and finer continental slope lithofacies accumulation after MIS 8 suggest a disorganized expansion of the areas under erosion and a more distal influence of ice sediment discharge to this site. We argue that this change may have been related to a re-organization of the drainage patterns of the Patagonian Ice Sheet and flow of outlet glaciers to the continental margin during the last two glaciations.     

Ultramafic rock weathering and slope erosion processes in a South West Pacific tropical environment

Weathering and erosion processes are investigated using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) imaging and the quantification of geomorphic patterns at the edges of a lateritic plateau overlying ultramafic rocks in the north western region of the main island of New Caledonia (Southwest Pacific). The obtained ERT images document the structure and long-term evolution of the regolith, while source area parameters such as area (A) local slope above channel head (tanθ) and longitudinal river profiles allow the characterization of contrasting geomorphic patterns around the plateau. The geo-electrical profiles show a succession of hard rock protrusions and weathering troughs, whose depth varies greatly. The area–slope relationship allows the distinction between saprolite- and ferricrete-mantled source areas. The former could result from a regolith erosion process by shallow landslides; the latter from a secondary ferruginization process of reworked lateritic debris. The deepest troughs underlie saprolite-mantled source areas above channel heads, which are characterized by a low permeability saprolite, relatively high slope gradient, and lower area/slope ratios. Such source areas generate fairly high runoff, sustaining rivers and creeks with relatively high erosion power. The ferricrete-mantled source areas are characterized by higher permeability and area/slope ratios, leading to lower runoff and less erosion but further chemical rock weathering. The ferricrete of those source areas acts as a protective hardcover against mechanical erosion of the underlying regolith. This ferricrete reworks, at least partly, allochtonous lateritic materials inherited from a previous disaggregated ferricrete that suggests past erosion processes driven by hydro-climatic condition changes.