Comments on the paper of B. Lehmann: Molybdenum distribution in precambrian rocks of the Colorado mineral belt

Conclusions 1. Lehman lends me statements that I have not written.2. Interesting enough, the analytical data he presents do not allow, in effect, a molybdenum geochemical province in the Colorado mineral belt to be found. However, a better differentiation of rock types would be a useful improvement.3. Neither the available results, nor the (classic) model Proposed for the large Colorado deposits, are tests of the basic theorem. Furthermore, the model implies a heritage, a logical inference tightly associated with the theorem without being in its foundation.In my opinion, it is to be desired that our journals and learned societies become, at intervals, concerned about the history of our science and concepts in order to avoid drifts, not accuse B. Lehmann. I only believe he reads (in French) too quickly.     

Molybdenum distribution in Precambrian rocks of the Colorado Mineral Belt

The average Mo content of more than one hundred rock samples from the Precambrian basement of the Colorado Mineral Belt corresponds well to the global molybdenum content of crustal rocks of 1.0 ppm. There are no indications of a regional geochemical molybdenum anomaly in that part of the crust or upper mantle.     

New Mexico structural zone—an analogue of the Colorado mineral belt

Updated aeromagnetic maps of New Mexico together with current knowledge of the basement geology in the northern part of the state (Sangre de Cristo and Sandia–Manzano Mountains)—where basement rocks were exposed in Precambrian-cored uplifts—indicate that the northeast-trending Proterozoic shear zones that controlled localization of ore deposits in the Colorado mineral belt extend laterally into New Mexico. The shear zones in New Mexico coincide spatially with known epigenetic precious- and base-metal ore deposits; thus, the mineralized belts in the two states share a common inherited basement tectonic setting. Reactivation of the basement structures in Late Cretaceous–Eocene and Mid-Tertiary times provided zones of weakness for emplacement of magmas and conduits for ore-forming solutions. Ore deposits in the Colorado mineral belt are of both Late Cretaceous–Eocene and Mid-Tertiary age; those in New Mexico are predominantly Mid-Tertiary in age, but include Late Cretaceous porphyry-copper deposits in southwestern New Mexico.The mineralized belt in New Mexico, named the New Mexico structural zone, is 250-km wide. The northwest boundary is the Jemez subzone (or the approximately equivalent Globe belt), and the southeastern boundary was approximately marked by the Santa Rita belt. Three groups (subzones) of mineral deposits characterize the structural zone: (1) Mid-Tertiary porphyry molybdenite and alkaline-precious-metal deposits, in the northeast segment of the Jemez zone; (2) Mid-Tertiary epithermal precious-metal deposits in the Tijeras (intermediate) zone; and (3) Late Cretaceous porphyry-copper deposits in the Santa Rita zone. The structural zone was inferred to extend from New Mexico into adjacent Arizona. The structural zone provides favorable sites for exploration, particularly those parts of the Jemez subzone covered by Neogene volcanic and sedimentary rocks.     

Petrochemistry and mineralogy of early Precambrian anorthositic rocks of the Limpopo belt, southern Africa

Two sections of the anorthosite ‘complex’ were examined at Messina, South Africa and at Pikwe, Botswana. Thirty XRF whole-rock analyses of samples in stratigraphic order show that alkalies at Messina increase upwards from leuco-gabbros to anorthosites, but no such correlation was found at Pikwe. Electron probe analyses of plagioclases in 33 samples indicate extensive normal zoning and variation (An₃₁-An₈₀) especially at Pikwe. The highest An-contents tend to vary monotonically with stratigraphic position, whereas the lowest values are erratic. Twenty-two amphibole analyses indicate that SiO₂, TiO₂ and MgO/FeO increase, decrease and increase, respectively, with height at Messina, but 22 analyses from Pikwe show no such trends. Their compositions are similar to those from the Fiskenaesset complex. Aluminous chromites are Fe-rich, also like the Fiskenaesset ones.

The Limpopo anorthositic rocks belong to a layered igneous body that was recrystallized by regional metamorphism and subjected to erratic metasomatism. The original Limpopo and Fiskenaesset bodies strongly resemble gabbroic and peridotitic relics in the Peninsular Ranges Batholith in S. California.     

On the oxygen isotope distribution among mineral triplets in igneous and metamorphic rocks

A compilation of ¹⁸O analyses of minerals separated from about 400 igneous and metamorphic rocks from published investigations reveals regularity in the fractionation of ¹⁸O among associated minerals, suggesting that an approach to isotopic equilibrium may be common. However, for only a minority of terrestrial rocks are these regularities sufficiently systematic to be compatible with the actual attainment and preservation of isotopic equilibrium among three minerals. Fractionations among triplets of quartz, calcite, feldspar, muscovite, and magnetite show some correspondence to those expected on the basis of experimental calibrations; however, there are also considerable deviations. The variability of natural data is such that less than half of the rocks analyzed to date would yield concordant ¹⁸O-derived temperatures. Of the additional 52 mineral triplets studied, plagioclase-pyrox-ene-ilmenite, plagioclase-pyroxene-magnetite, plagioclase-pyroxene-olivine, quartz-amphibole-garnet, pyroxene-ilmenite-magnetite, muscovite-biotite-magnetite, and quartz-muscovite-amphibole show the most systematic oxygen isotope fractionations. For 12 other mineral triplets a defined isotope fractionation relationship may be postulated to underlie the data; however for these a close approach to isotopic equilibrium is not commonly observed. For 33 of the mineral triplets an approach to isotopic equilibrium can be noted; however, the scatter of the available data is such that a systematic influence of a factor, such as temperature, on the size of the ¹⁸O fractionation could not be detected. In the past, regularities of oxygen isotope fractionations among three minerals have been used to establish secondary isotope geothermometers. Before this can be done with any reliability, however, the effects of possible retrograde isotope exchange and spurious correlation must be accounted for.     

REE distribution in corundum-bearing and other metasomatic rocks during the exhumation of metamorphic rocks of the belomorian belt of the Baltic Shield

The paper reports data on the distribution of REE in metasomatic rocks, including those with corundum, that were formed during the exhumation of the rocks of the Belomorian Belt at 1.9–1.75 Ga. This process is thought to have occurred concurrently with the horizontal extension and tectonic denudation of the upper crust, which, in turn, induced the massive release of fluids. The latter formed two major groups of silicic metasomatic rocks. The deepest-sitting corundum-bearing and other mafic metasomatic rocks are enriched in REE, alkalis, and alumina compared to the host rocks. The coeval acid metasomatic rocks such as orthotectites are, conversely, depleted in REE (with positive Eu anomalies), mafic elements, and HFSE but are also enriched in alumina. These complimentary rocks are thought to have been produced early during the exhumation of deep rocks under the effect of reduced fluids whose genesis was related to decompression. The silicic metasomatic rocks of the second group (with muscovite) have elevated REE concentrations (with negative Eu anomalies) and were formed by already oxidized fluids at shallower depths. The fact that the corundum-bearing metasomatic rocks are enriched in REE (in spite of the ultrabasic composition of these rocks) suggests that they were generated in an extensional environment with the participation of deep fluids, which enriched the rocks in Al, Na, K, Ba, Sr, Zr, and LREE.     

The use of sagebrush (Artemisia) as a biogeochemical indicator of base-metal deposits in Precambrian rocks of west-central Colorado

The efficacy of sagebrush (Artemisia) as a biogeochemical indicator of base-metal mineralization in stratabound Precambrian ore deposits in west-central Colorado was investigated by collecting new (mostly flowering) growth from several sagebrush shrubs over and near five such deposits in three different areas. These are the Sedalia mine and two mines in the Turret district near Salida, and two mines in the Cochetopa district southeast of Gunnison. Two species were used, A. tridentata and A. frigida, depending on the area. Sagebrush clippings were separated into two subsamples consisting of (1) stems, and (2) leaves and blossoms stripped from the stems. These subsamples were ashed separately and the ash analyzed with an emission spectrograph for 30 elements. There appear to be no appreciable differences in the analyses of the two subsamples, indicating that composite samples would provide adequate information for further investigations. Eight of these elements, Ag, Bi, Cu, Pb, Sn, Y, Zn, and Zr, are present in notably higher concentrations in the ash of samples growing over mineralized ground than in that of control samples growing over barren ground. Although the distribution pattern, and the number of these anomalous elements, differs at each of the five localities, three of them, silver, copper, and lead, show good contrast and close association with subjacent mineralization in all five study areas.     

Geochronology of Precambrian rocks in the Laramie Range and implications for the tectonic framework of Precambrian southern Wyoming

From Casper Mountain; at its northern end, to the northwestern margin of the Laramie anorthosite—syenite complex, in its central parts, the Laramie Range is underlain by granite and granitic gneiss that has a minimum age of 2.54 ± 0.04 Ga (Rb/Sr whole-rock isochron) and by metasedimentary rocks, including marble and quartzite, that appear to overlie the granitic gneiss nonconformably (minimum age: 1.7 Ga based on several horn-blende K/Ar dates). Southward from the anorthosite—syenite complex into Colorado, the Range is underlain chiefly by the Sherman Granite (1.41 Ga; Peterman and Hedge, 1968) and scattered patches of gneiss that are not dated, but are tentatively correlated wit similar gneiss in the southern Medicine Bow Mountains and in the Colorado Front Range, where they are dated as ? 1.7 Ga (Peterman and Hedge, 1968).The Laramie anorthosite—syenite complex (minimum age: ? 1.42 Ga or ? 1.51 Ga if a hornblende K/Ar date is accepted) apparently intruded the suture separating the old (? 2.5 Ga) continental edge from younger (? 1.7 Ga) geosynclinal rocks. The suture, which manifests itself as the Mullen Creek—Nash Fork shear zone in the Medicine Bow Mountains, also is the boundary between ensialic and ensimatic geosynclinal deposition that occurred during the interval 1.7–2.5 Ga ago.K/Ar dates on biotite and muscovite from rocks north of the anorthosite—syenite complex grade from 2.5 Ga on Casper Mountain down to 1.38 Ga near the complex. Near its northern tip, the Laramie Range is crossed by a geochronologic front, separating 2.5 Ga old gneiss whose K/Ar dates were not lowered by subsequent metamorphism from 2.5 Ga old gneiss whose mica dates were reset between 1.4 and 1.6 Ga ago.     

Iron in Precambrian rocks: implications for the global oxygen budget of the ancient Earth

Banded iron formations (BIF) are prominent in sediments older than 2 Ga. However, little is known about the absolute abundance of BIF in Archean and Early Proterozoic sediments, and the source of the Fe is still somewhat uncertain. Also unknown is the role that Fe may have played in the maintenance of low oxygen pressures in the Archean and Early Proterozoic atmosphere. An analysis of the chemical composition of Precambrian rocks provides some insight into the role of Fe in Precambrian geochemical cycles. The Fe content of igneous rocks is well correlated with their Ti content. Plots of Fe vs. Ti in Precambrian sandstones and graywackes fall very close to the igneous rock trend. Plots of Fe vs. Ti in Precambrian shales also follow this trend but show a definite scatter toward an excess of Fe. Phanerozoic shales and sandstones lie essentially on the igneous rock trend and show surprisingly little scatter. Mn/Ti relations show a stronger indication of Precambrian Mn loss, perhaps due to weathering under a less oxidizing early atmosphere. These data show that Fe was neither substantially added to nor significantly redistributed in Archean and early Proterozoic sediments. Enough hydrothermal Fe was added to these sediments to increase the average Fe content of shales by at most a factor of 2. This enrichment would probably not have greatly affected the near-surface redox cycle or atmospheric oxygen levels. Continued redistribution of Fe and mixing with weathered igneous rocks during the recycling of Precambrian sediments account for the excellent correlation of Fe with Ti in Phanerozoic shales and for the similarity between their Fe/Ti ratio and that of igneous rocks.     

Inter-element relations in some alkaline suites of the Eastern Ghats Precambrian belt

Element interrelations, with particular emphasis on alkaline earth metals, have been studied quantitatively for three alkaline suites of the Eastern Ghats Precambrian belt. Geochemical characterisation brings the Koraput and the Kunavaram suites closer, relative to the Elchuru suite. K-Ba and K-Rb correlations vary during the fractionation process, being strongly positive for the early members and almost noncorrelatable for the late fractions. The covariant relation between Ba and Sr is not well developed in any of the suites. Significant positive correlation between Rb and the degree of differentiation has been observed for the Koraput and the Kunavaram suites but not for the Elchuru suite. Liappears to be fractionated with the early mafic phases and is negatively correlated with Na. Zr shows a significant positive correlation with differentiation in the Elchuru but not in the Koraput suite although Ti/Zr falls remarkably with advancing differentiation for both the suites. P and Ti are mutually positively correlated in all the three suites and both tend to manifest significant negative correlation with progressive fractionation. K-(P + Ti + Sr) seems to be a good indicator of the fractionation process in the suites investigated.     

Finding of corundum-bearing rocks in the Lapland granulite belt

Corundum-bearing rocks are described for the first time in the Kandalaksha structure of the Lapland granulite belt. Corundum is confined to rocks of two types: metagabbro?anorthosites constituting lenses among metaanarthosites of the Kandalaksha massif and basic granulites. Corundum crystals (up to 200 μm long) occur in plagioclase and garnet and differ from each other depending on the host mineral, which serves as evidence against their xenogenic nature. Some corundum crystals exhibit an axial zone, which may indicate their crystallization from the gaseous phase. Corundum-bearing rocks are accompanied by piclogites (pyroxene?garnet varieties with olivine). Piclogites and their minerals (clinopyroxene, garnet) are characterized by a positive Eu anomaly, which implies rock reworking by fluids during corundum formation, when deep-seated complexes were subjected to exhumation.     

云南兰坪盆地古近系碎屑岩重矿物分布规律及其指示意义

对兰坪盆地古近系59件砂岩样品进行分析,结果表明,稳定重矿物的含量平均为38.4%,较稳定矿物及不稳定矿物含量低,平均分别为2.3%和1.1%;指相矿物（赤）褐铁矿含量较高,平均为50.5%。根据稳定系数、ZTR指数、ATi指数、GZi指数及其在剖面中的变化规律,将兰坪盆地构造演化划分为构造平缓期和构造活动期。古近纪构造活动在盆地不同部位、不同时期存在一定的差异,总体上显示中南部构造活动较北部有一定的延迟。重矿物组合显示,盆地古近系的源岩存在多种岩石类型,其中以沉积岩为主,而基性岩、中酸性侵入岩和变质岩都较少。重矿物组合及特征指数揭示了云龙组物源主要来自盆地东缘;果郎组物源以东缘为主,西缘为辅。指相重矿物组合显示,兰坪盆地古近系的沉积环境为水体较浅的强氧化环境。     

对国际地层委员会前寒武纪划分参考方案的简介及评述

国际地层委员会最近公布了2004年全球地质年代表,并专门讨论了2004-2008年前寒武纪划分参考方案。参考方案指出“应该根据唯一客观的物理标准——现存的岩石记录,对前寒武纪地质年表重新进行界定。前寒武纪的地层界线应标定于地层记录中的关键事件或转变点上,以突出反映地球系统演化的巨变。文中建议采用类似显生宙地层研究过程中所使用的“金钉子”法来确定前寒武纪界线。由于该文将对前寒武纪划分和整个前寒武纪研究工作带来重大影响,因此本文首先介绍了《参考方案》中有关前寒武纪划分原则和具体划分方案的新思路,对《参考方案》中值得商榷的问题进行了初步讨论,并对我国前寒武纪年代表制定中有关重点提出了建议。     

华北克拉通东部胶北地体早前寒武纪表壳岩系：研究进展与综述

胶北地体是华北克拉通早前寒武纪基底岩系的代表性出露区,变质表壳岩系在该地体的分布较为普遍。由于这些表壳岩系对探究华北克拉通早前寒武纪地质演化历史、资源和表生环境演化等的重要作用,国内外学者从岩石单元划分、时代框架、变质演化、含矿性及对表生环境演化的启示等多个方面开展了研究工作,并取得很多重要的研究进展。但是由于研究者对这些表壳岩系的岩石单元划分提出了多个不同方案,造成了岩石单元定义不清、使用混乱的情况。对表壳岩的岩石类型、空间分布和时间格架的研究,也存在多种不同意见,其中对古元古代变质沉积岩形成时代的争议最大。本文对不同的岩石单元划分方案进行梳理,总结研究进展,并对研究中存在的问题和争议进行讨论,明确未来研究方向。传统观点认为,胶北地体早前寒武纪表壳岩系包括中太古界唐家庄岩群、新太古界胶东岩群以及古元古界荆山群和粉子山群。本文在综述相关研究进展的基础上,结合地质年代学研究结果和野外地质关系发现：(1)唐家庄岩群和胶东岩群的一部分岩石记录太古宙晚期和古元古代两期变质作用,表明这部分岩石的形成时代应该在新太古代之前,但是目前对两个岩石单元的原岩形成时代尚无明确约束;(2)唐家庄岩群变质级别普遍为麻粒岩相,而胶东岩群岩石大多显示角闪岩相矿物组合;(3)分布于昌邑-莱州一带的含铁岩系原来被划归古元古界粉子山群小宋组,一些学者依据新的定年结果提出小宋组的形成时代应该为新太古代(约2.7~2.5Ga),属于新太古界胶东岩群;(4)古元古代(约2.2~2.1Ga)的花岗岩和辉长岩在胶北地体较为常见,呈现双峰式岩浆特征,在一些地区识别出古元古代岩浆岩与小宋组含铁岩系、荆山群野头组变质沉积岩呈侵入接触关系,暗示两个岩石单元的形成时代应该早于~2.1Ga;(5)从野外产状特征来看,胶北地体唐家庄岩群和胶东岩群的很多变质基性-超基性岩的原岩可能并不是火山岩,而是侵入岩。基于胶北地体古元古代岩浆活动、表壳岩系与其底部岩系的接触关系,并综合考虑其沉积、变质和岩浆活动的时代框架,本文认为胶北地体古元古代表壳岩系形成的构造背景为克拉通伸展盆地,代表华北古元古代活动带在胶北地体的早期响应。虽然关于胶北地体早前寒武纪表壳岩系的研究取得很多进展,但由于多期变质变形的叠加改造,表壳岩原始结构和构造已经被后期变形样式置换,对其岩石单元划分、每个岩石单元的岩石组成、区域对比关系、年代学框架和构造含义等多个方面,仍然存在很多问题和争议有待于深入研究。