On the Use of Calibration Explosions at the Former Semipalatinsk Test Site for Compiling a Travel-time Model of the Crust and Upper Mantle

—?Two chemical calibration explosions, conducted at the former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site in 1998 with charges of 25 tons and 100 tons TNT, have been used for developing travel-time curves and generalized one-dimensional velocity models of the crust and upper mantle of the platform region of Kazakhstan. The explosions were recorded by a number of digital seismic stations, located in Kazakhstan at distances ranging from 0 to 720?km. The travel-time tables developed in this paper cover the phases P, Pn, Pg, S, Sn, Lg in a range of 0–740?km and the velocity models apply to the crust down to 44?km depth and to the mantle down to 120?km. A comparison of the compiled travel-time tables with existing travel-time tables of CSE and IASPEI91 is presented.     

Velocities,elastic moduli and weathering-age relations for pacific layer 2 basalts

Compressional (V_p) and shear (V_s) wave velocities have been measured to 10 kb in 32 cores of basalt from 14 Pacific sites of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Both V_pandV_s show wide ranges (3.70to6.38km/sec forV_pand1.77to3.40km/sec forV_sat0.5kb) which are linearly related to density and sea floor age, confirming earlier findings by Christensen and Salisbury of decreasing velocity with progressive submarine weathering based on studies of basalts from five sites in the Atlantic. Combined Pacific and Atlantic data give rates of decreasing velocity of ?1.89and?1.35km/sec per100my forV_pandV_s respectively. New analyses of oceanic seismic refraction data indicate a decrease in layer 2 velocities with age similar to that observed in the laboratory, suggesting that weathering penetrates to several hundred meters in many regions and is largely responsible for the extreme range and variability of layer 2 refraction velocities.     

Crustal and upper mantle structures of the brazilian coast

The Rayleigh wave phase and group velocities in the period range of 24–39 sec, obtained from two earthquakes which occurred in northeastern brazil and which were recorded by the Brazilian seismological station RDJ (Rio de Janeiro), have been used to study crustal and upper mantle structures of the Brazilian coastal region. Three crustal and upper mantle models have been tried out to explain crustal and upper mantle structures of the region. The upper crust has not been resolved, due basically to the narrow period range of the phase and group velocities data. The phase velocity inversions have exhibited good resolutions for both lower crust and upper mantle, with shear wave velocities characteristic of these regions. The group velocity data inversions for these models have showed good results only for the lower crust. The shear wave velocities of the lower crust (3.86 and 3.89 km/sec), obtained with phase velocity inversions, are similar to that (=3.89 km/sec) found byHwang (1985) to the eastern South American region, while group velocity inversions have presented shear velocity (=3.75 km/sec) similar to that (=3.78 km/sec) found byLazcano (1972) to the Brazilian shield. It was not possible to define sharply the crust-mantle transition, but an analysis of the phase and group velocity inversions results has indicated that the total thickness of the crust should be between 30 and 39 km. The crustal and upper mantle model, obtained with phase velocity inversion, can be used as a preliminary model for the Brazilian coast.     

Average crustal structure of Sweden

Summary Records obtained at the permanent stations of the Swedish seismograph network from explosions carried out in Scandinavian waters in June 1969 are evaluated. The study includes determination of velocities for all crustal phases observed, furthermore of layer thicknesses, Poisson ratios and amplitude ratios. The purpose of the study is partly to provide a first approximation to the crustal structure in Sweden, partly to provide regional data for location of earthquakes and explosions in the area in the future. Average velocities (km/sec) are forPn 7.88±0.05,Pg1 6.25±0.08,Pg2 5.70,Sn 4.58±0.04,S ^* 3.70±0.04,Sg1 (Lg1) 3.58±0.03,Sg2 (Sg) 3.40±0.03,Rg 3.02±0.07. The average thickness is 12 km for the granitic layer, and 23 km for the basaltic layer, thus making the average crustal thickness equal to 35 km. Relative amplitudes plotted versus distance complete the dynamical side of the study and they are useful for identification of waves. A regional travel-time table is presented for the distance range 0°–10° with entries for each 0.1° and including all crustal phases read.     

The amplitude ratioPcP/P and the core-mantle boundary

Summary Using the Haskell matrix formulation, theoretical reflection coefficient curves have been calculated for a multi-layered core-mantle boundary for comparison with observational data. Two cases are considered, first when the shear velocity in the core is equal to zero and second when the core has a finite rigidity. If the velocity contrast is large between the imbedded layer and the mantle, the reflection coefficient curves for the multi-layered medium are irregular in shape as compared to those for two half-spaces, representing the core and the mantle, respectively. The reflection coefficient curves show an oscillatory character if the imbedded layer is thick and has a high velocity contrast.The observational data consist of short-period vertical-component seismograph records ofP andPcP from nuclear explosions in the Aleutian chain, Nevada, Novaya Zemlya, Kazakh and Sahara. Attenuation and geometrical spreading are taken into consideration. Four different models for the quality factorQ are applied to the observational data. The data are found to be much affected by theQ-model used for the corrections.Based on proposedQ-values, a model for the core-mantle boundary is found, characterized by two low-velocity layers at the bottom of the mantle. The thicknesses are 16.10 km (outer layer) and 19.96 km (inner layer), the compressional wave velocities 12.17 km/sec and 10.94 km/sec and the shear wave velocities are 6.29 km/sec and 5.33 km/sec, respectively. A better fit to this model is found when in addition the shear velocity in the outer core is 2.20 km/sec and the density ratio at the core-mantle boundary is 1.07. In other words, the observations favour a layer of finite rigidity in the outer core rather than a fluid one.     

A crust-mantle model for the NORSAR area

Summary Elastic waves from explosions were recorded at NORSAR and at a number of field stations, and the data were used for determining a crust-mantle model under the array. The number of explosions was eleven distributed on seven shot points. The total number of recording points was fifty-one, and the interpretation was based on 350 individual records.The velocities obtained for the crustal phases were 6.2, 6.6 and 8.2 km/sec for theP _g ,P _g andP _n waves respectively. A deep crustal phase with a velocity of about 7.4 km/sec was observed. The mean depths to the discontinuities within the crust were determined to be 17 and 26 km. The depth to Moho varied greatly across the array from 31.5 km in the central part to 38 km under the C-ring. The maximum dip observed for the Moho was 12^o.Contribution No. 57 to Norwegian Geotraverse Project.     

Teleseismic Lg of Semipalatinsk and Novaya Zemlya Nuclear Explosions Recorded by the GRF (Gräfenberg) Array: Comparison with Regional Lg (BRV) and their Potential for Accurate Yield Estimation

—?A comparison of regional and teleseismic log rms (root-mean-square) L g amplitude measurements have been made for 14 underground nuclear explosions from the East Kazakh test site recorded both by the BRV (Borovoye) station in Kazakhstan and the GRF (Gräfenberg) array in Germany. The log rms L g amplitudes observed at the BRV regional station at a distance of 690?km and at the teleseismic GRF array at a distance exceeding 4700?km show very similar relative values (standard deviation 0.048 magnitude units) for underground explosions of different sizes at the Shagan River test site. This result as well as the comparison of BRV rms L g magnitudes (which were calculated from the log rms amplitudes using an appropriate calibration) with magnitude determinations for P waves of global seismic networks (standard deviation 0.054 magnitude units) point to a high precision in estimating the relative source sizes of explosions from L g-based single station data. Similar results were also obtained by other investigators (Patton, 1988; Ringdal et?al., 1992) using L g data from different stations at different distances.¶Additionally, GRF log rms L g and P-coda amplitude measurements were made for a larger data set from Novaya Zemlya and East Kazakh explosions, which were supplemented with m _b (L g) amplitude measurements using a modified version of Nuttli's (1973, 1986a) method. From this test of the relative performance of the three different magnitude scales, it was found that the L g and P-coda based magnitudes performed equally well, whereas the modified Nuttli m _b (L g) magnitudes show greater scatter when compared to the worldwide m _b reference magnitudes. Whether this result indicates that the rms amplitude measurements are superior to the zero-to-peak amplitude measurement of a single cycle used for the modified Nuttli method, however, cannot be finally assessed, since the calculated m _b (L g) magnitudes are only preliminary until appropriate attenuation corrections are available for the specific path to GRF.     

Seismic Velocity and Q Structure of the Middle Eastern Crust and Upper Mantle from Surface-wave Dispersion and Attenuation

—Observed velocities and attenuation of fundamental-mode Rayleigh waves in the period range 7–82 sec were inverted for shear-wave velocity and shear-wave Q structure in the Middle East using a two-station method. Additional information on Q structure variation within each region was obtained by studying amplitude spectra of fundamental-mode and higher-mode Rayleigh waves. We obtained models for the Turkish and Iranian Plateaus (Region 1), areas surrounding and including the Black and Caspian Seas (Region 2), and the Arabian Peninsula (Region 3). The effect of continent-ocean boundaries and mixed paths in Region 2 may lead to unrealistic features in the models obtained there. At lower crustal and upper-mantle depths, shear velocities are similar in all three regions. Shear velocities vary significantly in the uppermost 10 km of the crust, being 3.21, 2.85, and 3.39 km/s for Regions 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Q models obtained from an inversion of interstation attenuation data show that crustal shear-wave Q is highest in Region 3 and lowest in Region 1. Q’s for the upper 10 km of the crust are 63, 71, and 201 for Regions 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Crustal Q’s at 30 km depth for the three regions are about 51, 71, and 134. The lower crustal Q values contrast sharply with results from stable continental regions where shear-wave Q may reach one thousand or more. These low values may indicate that fluids reside in faults, cracks, and permeable rock at lower crustal, as well as upper crustal depths due to convergence and intense deformation at all depths in the Middle Eastern crust.     

华北平原邢台地震活动地区的上地幔结构和地幔低速层

邢台地震活动地区,地壳底部莫霍界面之下尚有纵波速度为8.1、7.6、7.8和8.1公里/秒的四层介质,它们的下面有速度为7.2—7.4公里/秒的地幔低速层,低速层顶部的深度为83公里左右。 本文所得低速层与世界其他地区所得低速层参数的比较似乎说明:在构造活动地区、火山活动地区和地震活动地区,低速层中的速度值一般均较正常状态下（海洋和大陆地区）的地幔低速层为低,且埋深相对较浅。     

华北平原邢台地震活动地区的上地幔结构和地幔低速层

邢台地震活动地区,地壳底部莫霍界面之下尚有纵波速度为8.1、7.6、7.8和8.1公里/秒的四层介质,它们的下面有速度为7.2-7.4公里/秒的地幔低速层,低速层顶部的深度为83公里左右。 本文所得低速层与世界其他地区所得低速层参数的比较似乎说明:在构造活动地区、火山活动地区和地震活动地区,低速层中的速度值一般均较正常状态下（海洋和大陆地区）的地幔低速层为低,且埋深相对较浅。     

我国西北地区地壳中的高速夹层

在我国西北地区的柴达木盆地东部和甘肃地区,在距离炮点40互100公里处,能够接收到不少能量较强的地壳深界面反射波。另外还发现一种与一般反射波性质不同的波,其视速度特大,视速度随距离的变化不大,而且有较明显的终点;其吋距曲线与一般深界面反射波的时距曲线相交。根据它的特征可以判断地壳中存在具有速度梯度的高速夹层.求得的夹层参数为: 甘肃地区柴达木盆地东部覆盖层厚度 18.8公里 30.5公里覆盖层平均速度 5.5公里/秒 5.3公里/秒夹层厚度 6.0公里 3.2公里夹层速度 7.5-8.5公里/秒 7.5-8.0公里/秒夹层的上下界面均为强反射面,可以产生多次反射波。分別利用相邻两个反射波可以求得各层参数,并能避免射线折射的影响。甘肃地区和柴达木盆地东部的地壳厚度分別为51和52公里。地壳中有高速夹层的存在,可以更好地说明P~*速度分散的原因,而且也能够解释Lg波的传播机制。     

我国西北地区地壳中的高速夹层

在我国西北地区的柴达木盆地东部和甘肃地区,在距离炮点40互100公里处,能够接收到不少能量较强的地壳深界面反射波。另外还发现一种与一般反射波性质不同的波,其视速度特大,视速度随距离的变化不大,而且有较明显的终点;其吋距曲线与一般深界面反射波的时距曲线相交。根据它的特征可以判断地壳中存在具有速度梯度的高速夹层.求得的夹层参数为: 甘肃地区柴达木盆地东部覆盖层厚度 18.8公里 30.5公里覆盖层平均速度 5.5公里/秒 5.3公里/秒夹层厚度 6.0公里 3.2公里夹层速度 7.5—8.5公里/秒 7.5—8.0公里/秒夹层的上下界面均为强反射面,可以产生多次反射波。分別利用相邻两个反射波可以求得各层参数,并能避免射线折射的影响。甘肃地区和柴达木盆地东部的地壳厚度分別为51和52公里。地壳中有高速夹层的存在,可以更好地说明P~*速度分散的原因,而且也能够解释Lg波的传播机制。     

Does more mean less in epicentre estimation?

The epicentres of explosions at two test sites – Balapan (Shagan River), Former Soviet Union and Lop Nor, China – are estimated using the onset times of P from only three or four array stations at teleseismic distances. The epicentres of the explosions are known to within about 1 km from studies that make use of information from satellite imagery; these estimates are taken to be the true epicentres. With the true epicentres, differences between the true travel times and the times from travel-time tables are estimated. The differences include a component – path effects – that results in epicentre bias. Comparing our estimates using three or four stations with the true epicentres shows that with correction for path effects most of the epicentres are within 5 km of true and even without correction most estimated epicentres are within 10 km of true. The results confirm the conclusion of Evernden that if reading error in P times has a standard deviation of a few tenths of a second, reliable epicentres can be obtained given readings from only a few stations. This implies, what has been noted by others, that for epicentre estimation, better results can be obtained with a few well read P times from a constant network of the most reliable and sensitive stations, than by using uncritically all the available times. Even without correction for path effects none of the explosions (with times free from possible clock errors) falls outside a circular 1000 km² region; 1000 km² being the search area allowed for an on-site inspection under the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. The results suggest that rather than try and calibrate the whole of the International Monitoring System, being set up to verify the Test Ban, it would be better initially to concentrate on calibrating the few stations with the longest recording history and lowest detection thresholds.     

Propagation des ondesLi,Lg etRg à travers la mer Egée

Summary The effective propagation ofLi, Lg andRg waves across Aegean sea was established. It shows that the basin has the continental structure and that the orogenic area of Aegean sea doesn't influence on the continental waves transmition. There were obtained the meanLi, Lg ₁ ,Lg ₂ andRg velocities in Aegean sea respectively 3.80, 3.57, 3.32 and 3.03 kg/sec.     

永登系列爆破甘宁青地区地震台网的观测解释与地壳结构

1982—1983年在甘肃永登地区进行了系列人工大爆破,本文分析研究了甘宁青地震台网的观测记录,求得各种波的平均速度为:V_(?)=6.00公里/秒,V_(?)=3.56公里/秒,V_(pn)=8.16公里/秒,V_(?)=4.54公里/秒。表层直达纵波速度V_o=4.82公里/秒。莫霍界面上的反射波P_M在140—180公里范围比P_g波强10—7倍。並获得该地区的地壳厚度为:(1)甘肃北山的河西堡—高台一带为48.3公里。古浪—张掖—嘉峪关的河西走廊一带为50.2公里。祁连山南麓为53.6公里。(2)青海中南部为54.4公里。(3)甘肃东部的礼县—武都地压为48.7公里。定西—岷县—通谓地区为50.5公里。(4)宁夏六盘山区为51.6公里。六盘山西侧的甘肃静宁为48.6公里,东侧的平凉为47.5公里,东南端的陕西宝鸡为46.1公里。以上的地壳厚度分布显示了青藏高原地壳在东北边缘的递减,以及甘肃东部地区地壳的某些起伏。     

Studies of mantle structure of U.S.S.R. territory on long-range seismic profiles

Long-range seismic sounding carried out during the last few years on the territory of the U.S.S.R. has shown a basic inhomogeneity of the uppermost mantle, as well as evidence of regularities in the distribution of its seismic parameters. The following data were used: times and apparent velocities of P- and S-waves for investigation of mantle velocities, converted waves for seismic discontinuity model studies and wave attenuation for Q-factor estimation. Strong regularities were distinguished in the distribution of average seismic velocities for the uppermost mantle, in their dependence on the age and type of geostructure and on their position relative to the central part of the continent. Old platforms and the inner part of the continent are marked by velocities under the Mohorovi?i? discontinuity of more than 8.2–8.3 km s^?1, young platforms and outer parts of the continent by 8.0–8.2 km s^?1, and orogenic and rift zones by 7.8–8.0 km s^?1. The difference becomes more pronounced at a depth of about 100–200 km: for the old platform mantle velocities of 8.5–8.6 km s^?1 are typical; beneath the orogenic and rift areas, inversion zones with velocities less than 7.8 km s^?1 are observed.The converted waves show fine inhomogeneities of the crust and uppermost mantle, the presence of many discontinuities with positive and negative changes of velocity, and anisotropy of seismic waves in some of the layers. Wave attenuation allowed the determination of the Q-factor in the mantle. It varied from one region to another but a close relation between Q and P-wave velocity is the main cause of its variation.     

Velocity structure of uppermost mantle beneath China continent from Pn tomography

39473 Pn travel times are inverted to tomographically image both lateral variation and anisotropy of uppermost mantle velocities beneath China continent. The result indicates that the overall average Pn velocity of uppermost mantle in the studied region is 8.0 km/s and the regional velocity fluctuation varies from ?0.30 km/s to +0.35 km/s. Pn velocities higher than 8.2 km/s are found in the regions surrounding Qingzang Plateau, such as Junggar Basin, Tarim Basin, Qaidam Basin and Sichun Basin. Pn velocities slightly lower than the average are found in western Sichuan and Yunnan, Shanxi Graben and Bohai Bay region. A Pn velocity as low as 7.8 km/s may exist in the region striding the boundary between Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. In general, Pn velocity in tectonically stable region like cratonic platform tends to be high, while that in tectonically active region tends to be low. The regions in compressive setting usually show higher Pn velocity, while extensional basins or grabens generally display lower one. Anisotropy of Pn velocity is seen in some regions. In the southeastern region of Qingzang Plateau the directions of fastest Pn velocity show a rotation pattern, which may be related to southeastward escape of the plateau material due to the collision and compression of Indian Plate to Asia along Himalaya arc. Notable anisotropy also exists around Bohai Bay region, likely indicating crustal extending and possible magma activity therein.     

Spatial relation between source regions of strong earthquakes (M ≥ 7) on Southern Kamchatka and the distribution of velocities and elastic moduli in the Benioff zone

The presence of a phenomenological relationship between high velocity regions in the Benioff zone and sources of relatively strong earthquakes (M ≥ 6) was established for the first time from the comparison of such earthquakes with the velocity structure of central Kamchatka in the early 1970s. It was found that, in the region with P wave velocities of 8.1–8.5 km/s, the number of M ≥ 6 earthquakes over 1926–1965 was 2.5 times greater than their number in the region with velocities of 7.5–8.0 km/s. Later (in 1979), within the southern Kurile area, Sakhalin seismologists established that regions with V _P = 7.3–7.7 km/s are associated with source zones of M = 7.0–7.6 earthquakes and regions with V _P = 8.1–8.4 km/s are associated with M = 7.9–8.4 earthquakes. In light of these facts, we compared the positions of M = 7.0–7.4 earthquake sources in the Benioff zone of southern Kamchatka over the period 1907–1993 with the distribution of regions of high P velocities (8.0–8.5 to 8.5–9.0 km/s) derived from the interpretation of arrival time residuals at the Shipunskii station from numerous weak earthquakes in this zone (more than 2200 events of M = 2.3–4.9) over the period 1983–1995. This comparison is possible only in the case of long-term stability of the velocity field within the Benioff zone. This stability is confirmed by the relationship between velocity parameters and tectonics in the southern part of the Kurile arc, where island blocks are confined to high velocity regions in the Benioff zone and the straits between islands are confined to low velocity regions. The sources of southern Kamchatka earthquakes with M = 7.0–7.4, which are not the strongest events, are located predominantly within high velocity regions and at their boundaries with low velocity regions; i.e., the tendency previously established for the strongest earthquakes of the southern Kuriles and central Kamchatka is confirmed. However, to demonstrate more definitely their association with regions of high P wave velocities, a larger statistics of such earthquakes is required. On the basis of a direct correlation between P wave velocities and densities, the distributions of density, bulk modulus K, and shear modulus μ in the upper mantle of the Benioff zone of southern Kamchatka are obtained for the first time. Estimated densities vary from 3.6–3.9 g/cm³ in regions of high V _P values to 3.0–3.2 g/cm³ for regions of low V _P values. The bulk modulus K in the same velocity regions varies from (1.4–1.8) × 10¹² to (0.8–1.1) × 10¹² dyn/cm², respectively, and the shear modulus μ varies from (0.8–1.0) × 10¹² to (0.5–0.7) × 10¹² dyn/cm², respectively. Examination of the spatial correlation of the source areas of southern Kamchatka M = 7.0–7.4 earthquakes with the distribution of elastic moduli in the Benioff zone failed to reveal any relationship between their magnitudes and the moduli because of the insufficient statistics of the earthquakes used.     

Geodynamic processes in seismically active areas of the Tien Shan from monitoring data with the use of nuclear explosions

Recent geodynamic processes in the Tien Shan region are studied by the analysis of time series of effective velocities and traveltime delays relative to the IASPEI-91 traveltime curve of the weakly refracted wave P _n from nuclear explosions at the Semipalatinsk test site over the period of 1968–1989. The time series were constructed for 10 seismic stations located at distances of 800–1200 km from the test site in the regions of the Northern, Central, and Southern Tien Shan. The twenty-year period of observations at stations in the North Tien Shan showed a significant decrease in traveltime delays by 0.20–0.76 s, which corresponds to a 0.2–0.7% increase in seismic velocities. An opposite pattern is observed at stations of the Central and Southern Tien Shan: traveltime delays increased by 0.2–0.5 s and, accordingly, seismic velocities dropped by 0.2–0.5%. These results suggest the predominance of compression processes in the crust and upper mantle during the period of observations in Northern Tien Shan and extension processes in the Central and Southern Tien Shan. The series of velocities and traveltime residuals are characterized by the presence of rhythmic oscillations of various amplitudes and periods against a linear trend. A correlation between variations in kinematic parameters and yearly numbers of earthquakes is observed at all stations. Diagrams of the spectral time analysis reveal rhythms with periods of 2–3 and 5–7 yr. The data obtained in this study are consistent with results of studying the stress-strain state of the Tien Shan crust from focal mechanisms of earthquakes and the velocities of recent crustal movements from GPS data. It is found that the amplitude of variations in kinematic parameters of the P wave at stations located in seismically active regions (the Tien Shan, Kopet Dagh, the Caucasus, Altai, and Sayany) is two to five times higher compared to aseismic regions (the Russian and Kazakh plains).     

Insight into the Crustal Structure of the Eastern Marmara Region, NW Turkey

In order to investigate crustal structure beneath the eastern Marmara region, a seismic refraction survey was conducted across the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) zone in north west Turkey. Two reversed profiles across two strands of the NAF zone were recorded in the Armutlu Highland where a tectonically active region was formed by different continents. We used land explosions in boreholes and quarry blasts as seismic sources. A reliable crustal velocity and depth model is obtained from the inversion of first arrival travel times. The velocity-depth model will improve the positioning of the earthquake activities in this active portion of the NAF. A high velocity anomaly (5.6–5.8 km s⁻¹) in the central highland of Armutlu block and the low velocity (4.90 km s⁻¹) pattern north of Iznik Lake are the two dominant features. The crustal thickness is about 26 ± 2 km in the north and increases to about 32 ± 2 km beneath the central Armutlu block in the south. P-wave velocities are about 3.95 km s⁻¹ to 4.70 km s⁻¹ for the depth range between about 1 km and 5 km in the upper crust. The eastern Marmara region has different units of upper crust with velocities varying with depth to almost 8 km. The high upper crust velocities are associated with Armutlu metamorphic rocks, while the low velocity anomalies are due to unconsolidated sedimentary sequences. The western side of Armutlu block has complex tectonics and is well known for geothermal sources. If these sources are continuous throughout the portions of the crust, it may be associated with a granitic intrusion and deformation along the NAF zone. That is, the geothermal sources associated with the low velocity may be due to the occurrence of widespread shear heating, even shear melting. The presence of shear melting may indicate the presence of crustal fluid imposed by two blocks of the NAF system.