Dynamic Brazilian Tests of Granite Under Coupled Static and Dynamic Loads

Rocks in underground projects at great depth, which are under high static stresses, may be subjected to dynamic disturbance at the same time. In our previous work (Li et al. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 45(5):739–748, 2008), the dynamic compressive behaviour of pre-stressed rocks was investigated using coupled-load equipment. The current work is devoted to the investigation of the dynamic tensile behaviour of granite rocks under coupled loads using the Brazilian disc (BD) method with the aid of a high-speed camera. Through wave analyses, stress measurements and crack photography, the fundamental problems of BD tests, such as stress equilibrium and crack initiation, were investigated by the consideration of different loading stresses with abruptly or slowly rising stress waves. The specially shaped striker method was used for the coupled-load test; this generates a slowly rising stress wave, which allows gradual stress accumulation in the specimen, whilst maintaining the load at both ends of the specimen in an equilibrium state. The test results showed that the tensile strength of the granite under coupled loads decreases with increases in the static pre-stresses, which might lead to modifications of the blasting design or support design in deep underground projects. Furthermore, the failure patterns of specimens under coupled loads have been investigated.     

Parametric study using FEM for the stability of the RCC Tannur dam

Parametric study was carried out in this paper using the Finite Element Method (FEM) to study the effects of variations of the two parameters, i.e., variations in batter slope and foundation properties under static and dynamic loading conditions on the distribution of the peak stresses within the dam and foundation soils. The response spectra for the operating basis earthquake (OBE) and the maximum credible earthquake (MCE) were used in the dynamic analysis. It is shown that the distribution of peak stresses across base of dam and the extent of tensile zone on the foundation soils at the foundation level vary with the variations in the batter slope. Generally, as the batter slope increases the extent of the tensile zone at the foundation level decreases but not necessarily the maximum tensile stresses. However, an optimum batter slope could be achieved based on the results of this parametric study. It should be noted that the greatest tension is developed in the rock adjacent to the toe of the batter. For the foundation mechanical properties, it has been shown that the assessment of accurate soil mechanical properties has a great effect on the computed design stresses from finite element analysis. However, the greatest effect of the foundation properties was on the stresses at the base of dam while it has a negligible effect within the dam body.     

一种简单的岩体地下洞室地震安全评价方法

提出了动应力集中因子代表值的概念,以合理反映地震荷载作用下地下洞室围岩的动应力集中程度,并将动应力集中因子代表值,作为洞室地震响应的关键特征来衡量洞室地震响应的大小。应用显示有限差分法,讨论了地震动加速度幅值、洞室埋深、围岩岩体级别、衬砌混凝土厚度、衬砌混凝土强度等级与动应力集中因子代表值的相关关系。研究表明,动应力集中因子代表值与这5个因素均近似呈线性关系。在此基础上给出了有（无）衬砌支护结构两种情况的地震安全评价公式,提出了岩体地下洞室的地震安全评价方法。应用提出的评价方法,分别对唐山余震地震作用下溪洛渡水电站超大型地下洞室群的地震安全性进行了评价,所得结果与Dowding-Rozen及Sharma-Judd的评价方法结果一致。分析还表明,文中提出的岩体地下工程的地震安全评价方法的评价结果是偏于安全的。     

Stability of expansive cement grout borehole seals emplaced in the vicinity of underground radioactive waste repositories

An expansive cementitious borehole plug emplaced in an underground opening in the vicinity of an underground nuclear waste repository may generate radial stresses on the walls of the opening due to an axial stress applied to the borehole plug and due to plug swelling. As these radial stresses may lead to the tensile fracturing of the rock, minimizing or preferably eliminating tensile stresses in rock is particularly important to preserve waste containment. Presented in this paper are the theoretical radial (normal) stress distribution and tensile strength in a borehole plug–rock system due to combined axial, thermal and lateral loading, along with analyses of plug–rock mechanical interactions in regards to borehole stability against tensile fracturing.     

Migration of seismicity and pore pressure diffusion for five decades long Koyna–Warna sequence and precursory nucleation process for earthquake forecasting

The continued reservoir-triggered seismicity for five decades in Koyna area has been attributed to southward migration of seismicity (during 1967–1992 near and south of Koyna dam and from 1993 onwards mostly near the new Warna reservoir). Spread of seismicity in the vicinity of reservoirs is attributed to pore-pressure diffusion. Moderate size Koyna–Warna earthquakes are found to nucleate at shallow depth (≤ 3 km) due to pore pressure caused by water level fluctuation of reservoir(s). The nucleation zone deepens along the critically stressed permeable fault zone to cause the occurrence of mainshock at the base of seismogenic layer (i.e. 5–10 km). The clustering of foreshocks up to 500 hr prior to several moderate size Koyna earthquakes of magnitude Mw 4–5 has been detected and used for quantifying the nucleation process. A static stress transfer by means of cascade model from one foreshock to next for the generation of foreshocks has been proposed for nucleation model. The nucleation process can be considered as an immediate earthquake precursor for the Koyna-Warna region.     

动静组合作用下刀具破岩机制数值分析

基于细观损伤有限元方法,模拟分析了刀具在单一动载、动静联合荷载、静态围压条件下动静联合荷载3种情况下岩体破碎的全过程。模型采用黏弹性人工边界剔除了边界应力波反射对模拟结果准确性的影响。数值模拟结果表明：在弹性情况下,静压的存在对岩体内部最小主应力值影响不大,却显著提高了材料内部最大主应力水平,增大了剪应力的大小,导致剪切破坏可能性增加;当有围压存在时,岩体内部受拉区域减少,岩体强度有所提高。单一动载和动静联合荷载破岩时,岩体内部除刀头附近呈现少量压破坏外,破坏均以拉破坏为主;而围压条件下,岩体破碎面积相对减小,裂纹在围压的作用下向两侧自由面延伸,岩体内部破坏形式则趋于多样化,压破坏比重明显增大,整体表现为拉压复合作用。模拟结果还表明,刀头侵入量主要受动载力大小影响,在相同幅值增量下,动载力增加导致的刀头侵入量远大于静压增加所导致的侵入量。相对单一动载和静压作用下的岩石破碎机制来说,动静组合加载破岩的研究还需更为深入的探讨。研究结果可望对岩体破坏机制以及地下工程作业等实际应用提供一定的参考。     

Three-dimensional intraplate stress distributions associated with topography and crustal density inhomogeneities beneath the Deccan Volcanic Province

The generation of intraplate earthquakes has been attributed to perturbations in the stress regime, either due to surface and sub-surface loading or strength weakening of the rock mass. The present work aims at estimating the intraplate stresses associated with topography and crustal density inhomogeneities beneath the Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP). A layered crustal model with irregular interfaces of small amplitude has been used for elastostatic stress calculations. The computed principal stress differences show a significant concentration at 5–20 km depths beneath the western side of the region. The maximum magnitude of principal stress difference occurs beneath the Karad at a depth of 10 km with a value of 60 MPa. The deviatoric stress estimates are further superposed on inferred stresses due to the regional plate tectonic forces. These results show principal stress difference concentrations beneath the Koyna, Poona and Karad regions which may thus be more vulnerable to brittle failure. It is also seen that the principal total stress directions point to the strike slip motion at Koyna, similar to that which is associated with the 1967 Koyna earthquake.     

深埋地下结构静动力耦合响应分析的边界条件设置方法

针对深埋地下结构的荷载环境特点,提出了深埋地下结构静动力耦合计算过程中边界条件的合理设置方法。该方法通过构建边界上的力系来平衡计算区域的初始地应力,然后将该力系设置成阶跃函数形式的动荷载作用于边界,并与后续的动荷载共同作用。研究表明,一次完整的地下结构静动力耦合分析过程,边界条件必须经过变换设置才能得到合理的计算结果。另外,只要计算软件具有黏性边界条件设置功能就能准确地完成地下结构静动力耦合响应分析。算例分析显示,该边界条件设置方法精度和效率高,简单适用。     

Dynamic Modelling of Fault Slip Induced by Stress Waves due to Stope Production Blasts

Seismic events can take place due to the interaction of stress waves induced by stope production blasts with faults located in close proximity to stopes. The occurrence of such seismic events needs to be controlled to ensure the safety of the mine operators and the underground mine workings. This paper presents the results of a dynamic numerical modelling study of fault slip induced by stress waves resulting from stope production blasts. First, the calibration of a numerical model having a single blast hole is performed using a charge weight scaling law to determine blast pressure and damping coefficient of the rockmass. Subsequently, a numerical model of a typical Canadian metal mine encompassing a fault parallel to a tabular ore deposit is constructed, and the simulation of stope extraction sequence is carried out with static analyses until the fault exhibits slip burst conditions. At that point, the dynamic analysis begins by applying the calibrated blast pressure to the stope wall in the form of velocities generated by the blast holes. It is shown from the results obtained from the dynamic analysis that the stress waves reflected on the fault create a drop of normal stresses acting on the fault, which produces a reduction in shear stresses while resulting in fault slip. The influence of blast sequences on the behaviour of the fault is also examined assuming several types of blast sequences. Comparison of the blast sequence simulation results indicates that performing simultaneous blasts symmetrically induces the same level of seismic events as separate blasts, although seismic energy is more rapidly released when blasts are performed symmetrically. On the other hand when nine blast holes are blasted simultaneously, a large seismic event is induced, compared to the other two blasts. It is concluded that the separate blasts might be employed under the adopted geological conditions. The developed methodology and procedure to arrive at an ideal blast sequence can be applied to other mines where faults are found in the vicinity of stopes.     

The stability of slopes and underground openings against flexural toppling and their stabilisation

Summary The stability of slopes and underground openings during and after excavation is always of great concern in the field of rock engineering. Depending upon the geologic conditions and material properties of rock and discontinuities, and the geometry of excavations and topography, various kinds of instabilities are likely to be encountered. One of these is the flexural toppling failure which has become to be known recently. A stability analysis method for slopes and underground openings under various loading conditions against the flexural toppling failure is proposed. In addition, for the stabilisation of structures, a method is suggested to take into account the reinforcement effect of fully grouted rockbolts. The applicability and validity of the proposed method is checked through model tests carried out in laboratory under well controlled conditions.     

Continuum large cracking in a rate‐dependent plastic–damage model for cyclic‐loaded concrete structures

Formulation and algorithmic treatment of a rate‐dependent plastic–damage model modified to capture large tensile cracking in cyclic‐loaded concrete structures are presented in detail for a three‐dimensional implementation. The plastic–damage model proposed by Lee and Fenves in 1998 was founded based on isotropic damaged elasticity in combination with isotropic multi‐hardening plasticity to simulate cracking and crushing of concrete under cyclic or dynamic loadings. In order that the model can capture large crack opening displacements, which are inevitable in plain concrete structures, the excessive increase in plastic strain causing unrealistic results in cyclic behaviors is prevented when the tensile plastic–damage variable controlling the evolution of tensile damage is larger than a critical value. In such a condition, the crack opening/closing mechanism becomes similar to discrete cracking. The consistent tangent operator required to accelerate convergence rate is also formulated for the large cracking state including viscoplasticity. The validation and performance of the modified algorithm implemented in a special finite element program is exemplified through several single‐element tests as well as three structural applications. The last example examines the model in the seismic fracture analysis of Koyna dam as a benchmark problem and the resulting crack profile is compared with the available experiment. The numerical experimentations well demonstrate that the developed model whose modification is necessary to properly simulate the cyclic behavior of plain concrete subjected to large tensile strains is robust and reasonably accurate. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

静动荷载下桩网结构路基模型试验研究

通过室内模型试验测试了桩网结构路基各部分在动静两种荷载下的桩-土应力、格栅拉力,研究了土拱效应的发展演化机制以及土工格栅拉膜效应的发展特点。试验结果表明：桩-土应力以及格栅拉力的分布都是路基横截面方向上大于其纵向延伸方向,这与路基的梯形截面设计相关;空间土拱效应要强于平面土拱效应,空间土拱效应的极限状态出现在桩-土应力比为3.8时,平面土拱效应的极限状态出现在桩-土应力比为2.2时;动荷载下土拱效应较静载有一定的衰减,且静载下土拱效应越强的部位在动载的下衰减程度越大,桩间土压力随振次的发展趋势类似N型,与桩顶土压力的变化趋势正好相反。     

牙轮钻头动静耦合碎岩机理及旋挖成桩应用

总结了在不同高温状态下冷却、不同加载速率及随机裂隙发育状态下花岗岩动态抗拉力学特性的变化规律;结合牙轮钻头孔底碎岩过程,分析了动静载荷耦合作用下岩石破碎的载荷一侵深特性曲线,认为动、静载荷耦合作用的加载点（即动载的施加点）应是在静载处于卸载阶段;并根据加载能量大小讨论了不同动静耦合工况下产生的岩石破裂深度及破碎体积,表明通过一定范围内增大静载荷及冲击力、预加静压对岩石进行预应力损伤、加载一卸载一加载的破碎循环模式,有利于高效碎岩及裂纹的发育。嵌岩桩基础工程实践表明,通过改造牙轮钻头等钻具结构形式及布齿方式,利用动静耦合加载方式及对钻头冷却处理,可实现牙轮钻头在微风化花岗岩高效钻进的目的,为牙轮钻头的旋挖钻进成桩应用提供了重要的技术支撑。     

A New Analytical Solution for the Stress State in Inclined Backfilled Mine Stopes

There are several good reasons for using backfill in underground stopes, including a reduction of mine wastes on the surface and the improvement of ground stability. Backfilling is now commonly used in underground operations worldwide, so practical methods are required to assess the stress state in stopes, on the surrounding rock mass and on support structures. The majority of existing analytical solutions for the stresses have been developed for vertical openings. In practice, stopes often have inclined walls, and this affects the stress state. Recent numerical studies have shown how the stresses distribution in inclined backfilled stopes is influenced by stope geometry and backfill strength. It has also been shown that existing analytical solutions do not capture the essential tendencies regarding these influence factors. In this paper, a new solution is proposed for the vertical and horizontal stresses in backfilled stopes with inclined walls. This solution takes into account the variation of the stresses along the opening height and width, including the difference between the hanging wall and footwall, for various inclination angles of the walls. Key results are presented and validated using recently performed numerical simulations.     

Three mathematical comminution models based on strain energy

A parameter of interest in the theory of comminution is the energy absorbed per unit new surface produced, erg cm^?2. Naturally this unit has a certain relation to the strain energy per unit volume of the solid at fracture. Unit new surface energy is calculated from three mathematical models: the first two under static loading and the third under dynamic loading assuming fracture by tensile stresses.The average physical characteristics of limestone, quartz, calcite and glass which are found in the literature are used in the formulas of these three mathematical models. The calculated values of the new surface energies from these models are compared with experimental and theoretical values.The values from these models are reasonably close to those from the experiments, consequently there is the possibility of application of these models in practice.     

The present status of reservoir induced seismicity investigations with special emphasis on Koyna earthquakes

The status of Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS) has been reviewed periodically (Rothé, 1968, 1973; Gupta and Rastogi, 1976; Simpson, 1976; Packer et al., 1979). In the present paper, the significant work carried out during the last three years on RIS is reviewed.An earthquake of magnitude occurred on November 14, 1981 in the vicinity of Aswan Lake, Egypt, 17 years after the filling started in 1964. This event occurred 4 days after the seasonal maximum in the reservoir water level and was followed by a long sequence of aftershocks. Another event of magnitude occurred in the vicinity of Aswan Lake on August 20, 1982. Results of preliminary investigations indicate that this seismic activity is reservoir induced. Recent analyses of induced seismic events at Nurek Reservoir U.S.S.R., show that the second stage of filling during August to December 1976, increasing the maximum depth from 120 m to 200 m, was accompanied by an intense burst of shallow seismic activity. An outward migration from the centre of the reservoir, possibly associated with diffusion of pore pressure, is revealed by the temporal distribution of earthquake foci. A variety of investigations including the in situ measurement of tectonic stress, pore pressure, permeability, distribution of faults, etc., in addition to monitoring seismicity, have been undertaken in the vicinity of the Monticello Reservoir, South Carolina. The largest reservoir induced earthquake is predicted not to exceed magnitude 5.The Koyna Reservoir, India, continues to be the most outstanding example of RIS. Three earthquakes of magnitude 5 occurred in September 1980. Earthquakes of magnitude 4 occur frequently in the vicinity of Koyna, the latest being on February 5, 1983. Events that occurred during the period 1967–1973 have been relocated using better procedures and are found to be much shallower and the epicentres less diffused. Location of 12 earthquakes of M_s 4.0, their foreshocks and aftershocks, that occurred during 1973–1976, composite focal mechanism solutions and related studies are consistent with the delineation of a N-S trending fault through the reservoir area. In a couple of interesting studies it has been demonstrated that earthquakes of magnitude 5.0 in the Koyna region are usually preceded by several magnitude 4 earthquakes in the preceding fortnight. Also, a rate of loading of Koyna reservoir of at least 40 ft/week appears to be a necessary, although not sufficient, condition for the occurrence of magnitude 5 earthquakes. Smooth filling/emptying appears to be the key to reduce the hazard of RIS.A map and a table of the reported cases of reservoir induced changes in seismicity through 1982 have been compiled.     

Two-dimensional dynamic finite element simulation of rock blasting

In the present study, the two-dimensional blast model has been simulated using finite element software Abaqus/CAE. The John–Wilkins–Lee equation of state has been used to calculate the pressure caused by the release of the chemical energy of the explosive. Detonation point from center of hole has been defined for the traveling path of explosive energy. Elastoplastic dynamic failure constitutive with kinematic hardening model was adopted for rock mass responses under high explosive pressure to understand the mechanism of blast phenomena. In this model, it is assumed that failure of rock occurs under tensile failure when yield plastic stress exceeded to its static tensile strength. The hydrostatic pressure was used as a failure measure to model dynamic spall or a pressure cut off. Variation of detonation velocity has been measured in terms of simulation blast output energies index results.     

The role of the 1999 Chamoli earthquake in the formation of ground cracks

The moderate magnitude Chamoli earthquake that occurred in the Garhwal Higher Himalaya, in the early hours of March 29, 1999, caused intense damage to the ground and mountain slopes of the Alaknanda–Mandakini river valley and adjoining region. A systematic survey of this induced damage was conducted immediately after the earthquake occurred. Prominent shallow cracks of significant length, negligible width and indeterminate vertical extent, conspicuously tensile in nature, with little or no slip across the crack planes, were observed in the ground at several places along the surveyed route. These cracks had formed in the dynamic phase of the Chamoli earthquake process that is in the period of time during which the earthquake-generated seismic waves were passing through the geographic region of interest. However, we use the theory of earthquake-induced static (or long time) stress changes to visualize such cracks at some selected sites where ground damage was relatively more intense and varied to suggest lower bound estimates of the dynamic stress contributions of the main shock for their formation.Based on the results of our analysis we conclude that, just prior to the earthquake occurrence, under the influence of the local ambient stress field, the ground at these sites was already near failure in tension. To this, in its dynamic phase, the Chamoli earthquake induced stress perturbations, having, across the planes of the cracks, (i) shear components which were nearly equal and opposite to similar components of the ambient stress field and (ii) normal (tensile) components, necessary for triggering tensile failure of the ground. The σ₃ (or minimum principal stress) component of the resultant perturbed failure stress field thus became sufficiently tensile while the transverse stresses became sufficiently insignificant. This facilitated formation of major tensile cracks in the ground there. Our static estimates of the tensile stress changes at the different sites are, in essence, estimates of the minimal triggering stress perturbations that was provided by the Chamoli earthquake in the dynamic state for the formation of the tensile cracks there.     

地震作用下边坡的动态响应规律研究

以印度Koyna地震为输入动荷载,利用ABAQUS软件建立了一个均质土坡动力数值分析模型。在此基础上,分析了该地震作用下边坡的动力响应规律。结果表明,边坡对地震加速度存在放大作用,坡顶水平向峰值加速度为1.0 m/s2,约为输入地震峰值加速度的3倍;坡顶竖向峰值加速度为0.8 m/s2,约为输入地震峰值加速度的3.2倍;在当土体发生破损以后坡体位移随地震持时的增加而增大,存在变形累积效应。研究结果有助于进一步揭示边坡在地震作用下的失稳机制。     

A contribution to an accurate analysis of shallow underground openings

In the numerical analysis of a problem which has not been solved previously, it is imperative to ensure that the results of analysis are accurate enough. In the case of finite element analysis, assuming that a FEM formulation is available, it demands that the finite element subdivision of the analysis domain is adequate without making the analysis too expensive. In the analysis of shallow underground openings in which the analysis domain is discretised by a combination of finite and infinite elements, it is possible to meet this demand. It is demonstrated in this study through a finite/infinite element analysis of shallow openings of circular and elliptical shapes.