Preliminary laboratory studies of the optical scattering properties of the crystal clouds

Ice crystal clouds have an influence on the radiative budget of the earth; however, the exact size and nature of this influence has yet to be determined. A laboratory cloud chamber experiment has been set up to provide data on the optical scattering behaviour of ice crystals at a visible wavelength in order to gain information which can be used in climate models concerning the radiative characteristics of cirrus clouds. A PMS grey-scale probe is used to monitor simultaneously the cloud microphysical properties in order to correlate these closely with the observed radiative properties. Preliminary results show that ice crystals scatter considerably more at 90° than do water droplets, and that the halo effects are visible in a laboratorygenerated cloud when the ice crystal concentration is sufficiently small to prevent masking from multiple scattering.     

涪陵地区井下页岩岩芯裂缝体密度与声学性质关系实验研究

本研究对涪陵地区井下产气的龙马溪组页岩岩芯,采用三轴压机压裂制造裂缝,用工业CT扫描压裂前后岩芯,应用图像识别技术统计出裂缝体密度,又用超声脉冲透射法测定样品破裂前后裂缝方向上的纵波、单偏振方向与裂缝不同夹角的横波,来研究裂缝对页岩岩芯声学性质的影响.实验结果表明：压裂后样品的纵波速度略微降低,只有含较多内部裂隙的150#样品纵波速度减小幅度明显.压裂前后样品的纵波波形差别不大,纵波主频随裂缝体密度呈下降趋势,即压裂后纵波频谱主频向低频端移动.压裂前横波速度随自身与裂隙方位角变化而变化,与0°和180°相比,在45°和135°时略微减小,在90°时速度降低幅度最为明显并且发生相位反转.典型样品的横波主频随偏振方向与裂缝夹角的增大而逐渐向低频移动;压裂后,横波频谱杂乱,出现多处局部峰值,速度和主频较压裂前更低,平均横波波速随裂缝体密度呈明显减小趋势.平均纵横波速比随裂缝密度呈近线性增加,表明其与裂缝体密度有较强相关性.     

Recovery of the form of acoustic signals in experiments with rock samples

The formation of signals in the receiving channel of the recording system is assumed to be described by the linear procedure of convolution (Duhamel’s integral) in the first approximation. In this case, distortions caused by irregularity in the amplitude-frequency characteristic of electroacoustic converters (receivers) can be reduced and a real form of input signals can be recovered. To do this, it is required to know the impulse characteristic of the receiver and the amplifying part of the input channel of the system and to perform secondary data processing. A principal possibility of recovering a form of the input signals in such a way is shown.     

On the stimulation of acoustic emission in rock samples by electromagnetic fields

The combined impacts of the electromagnetic fields generated by two independent sources on the process of crack formation in loaded heterogeneous materials (rocks) are studied. The interest in such experiments lies in the fact that in natural conditions, the combination of several fields—the potential triggers of seismic activity—is rather the rule than the exception. It is shown by examples that in the conditions of crossed electric and magnetic fields (CrEMFs) the enhancement in acoustic activity can be triggered with a lower strength electric field than in case of the electric impact alone.     

Perfectly matched layer boundary conditions for frequency-domain acoustic wave simulation in the mesh-free discretization

Mesh-free discretization, flexibly distributing nodes without computationally expensive meshing process, is able to deal with staircase problem, oversampling and undersampling problems and saves plenty of nodes through distributing nodes suitably with respect to irregular boundaries and model parameters. However, the time-domain mesh-free discretization usually exhibits poorer stability than that in regular grid discretization. In order to reach unconditional stability and easy implementation in parallel computing, we develop the frequency-domain finite-difference method in a mesh-free discretization, incorporated with two perfectly matched layer boundary conditions. Furthermore, to maintain the flexibility of mesh-free discretization, the nodes are still irregularly distributed in the absorbing zone, which complicates the situation of artificial boundary reflections. In this paper, we implement frequency-domain acoustic wave modelling in a mesh-free system. First, we present the perfectly matched layer boundary condition to suppress spurious reflections. Moreover, we develop the complex frequency shifted–perfectly matched layer boundary condition to improve the attenuation of grazing waves. In addition, we employ the radial-basis-function-generated finite difference method in the mesh-free discretization to calculate spatial derivatives. The numerical experiment on a rectangle homogeneous model shows the effectiveness of the perfectly matched layer boundary condition and the complex frequency shifted–perfectly matched layer boundary condition, and the latter one is better than the former one when absorbing large angle incident waves. The experiment on the Marmousi model suggests that the complex frequency shifted–perfectly matched layer boundary condition works well for complicated models.     

Measuring ignitability for in situ burning of oil spills weathered under Arctic conditions: from laboratory studies to large-scale field experiments

This paper compares the ignitability of Troll B crude oil weathered under simulated Arctic conditions (0%, 50% and 90% ice cover). The experiments were performed in different scales at SINTEF’s laboratories in Trondheim, field research station on Svalbard and in broken ice (70-90% ice cover) in the Barents Sea. Samples from the weathering experiments were tested for ignitability using the same laboratory burning cell. The measured ignitability from the experiments in these different scales showed a good agreement for samples with similar weathering. The ice conditions clearly affected the weathering process, and 70% ice or more reduces the weathering and allows a longer time window for in situ burning. The results from the Barents Sea revealed that weathering and ignitability can vary within an oil slick. This field use of the burning cell demonstrated that it can be used as an operational tool to monitor the ignitability of oil spills.     

Some laboratory cultured crustaceans for marine pollution studies

Three laboratory cultured crustaceans are recommended for use in marine pollution studies because they are characterized by (1) wide distribution, (2) a short life cycle, (3) high reproductive potential, and are (4) representative of the plankton and benthos in coastal waters and the intertidal zone, where oil spills most often occur and refinery wastes are discharged. Methods of culturing these crustaceans are described.     

A laboratory study of formative conditions for characteristic ripple patterns associated with a change in wave conditions

A wave‐?ume experiment was conducted to examine the formative condition for three types of distinctive bedforms that emerged through deformation of existing ripples due to waning wave power. They were ripple marks with: (1) a single secondary crest, (2) double secondary crests, and (3) a rounded crest. Data were analysed using two parameters, kh and d₀/λ_*, where k is the wave number, h is the water depth, d₀ is the near‐bottom orbital diameter, and λ_* is the spacing of existing ripples. The former quantity, kh, was employed as a surrogate for the degree of ?ow asymmetry. The result showed that ripples with secondary crests developed under a rather symmetrical ?ow ?eld with kh ? 0·7, if d₀/λ_* ? 1·2, whereas rounded‐crest ripples emerged under asymmetrical ?ow ?eld with kh ? 0·7, if d₀/λ_* ? ?2·9 kh + 3·2. The number of secondary crests, which initially occurred in each trough, was single if d₀/λ_* ? 0·8, or double if d₀/λ_* ? 0·8. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

分布式光纤声波传感器及其在天然地震学研究中的应用

分布式光纤声波传感器(Distributed Acoustic Sensing, DAS)是近年来兴起的超密集地震观测系统,具有一系列观测密度高、观测成本低、耐受恶劣环境等优势,在油气行业得到了广泛应用,也引起了天然地震学界的关注.本文简要回顾了DAS系统的测量原理、发展历程、技术方案、介绍了测量原理及其响应特性,然后围绕多个观测实验,介绍浅部结构成像、深部结构探测和地震监测三个方向的典型应用实例,最后讨论了DAS系统在天然地震学研究中应用面临的挑战和发展趋势.     

单极源钻铤波传播机制的实验研究

为了研究随钻声波测井中单极源钻铤波的传播特性,本文在水池中进行了缩小尺寸的随钻声波测井实验.首先建立了实验室内高分辨的数据采集系统(24位分辨率/1.25 MS/s采样率)和高精度三维运动控制系统(最小移动步长0.5mm),并通过测量声源和接收换能器之间直达流体声波信号,验证了声源/接收探头和实验测量系统的有效性.之后对4种实验模型下单极源激发钻铤波的传播规律进行了实验分析,分别在钻铤内部和钻铤外流体中记录了钻铤波信号,重点分析了不同情况下钻铤内部直达钻铤波和钻铤外部泄漏钻铤波的幅值差异性及产生原因,讨论了泄漏钻铤波沿着井轴方向和直径方向的衰减规律.实验结果表明:钻铤波在声源和钻铤分离情况下依旧可以激发很强的钻铤波,但当钻铤被截断后两部分钻铤波同时消失,在截断位置转化成流体声波波群继续向前传播.此外,通过定量分析两部分钻铤波的幅值特性发现,泄漏钻铤波的幅值约为直达钻铤波幅值的1/4,两者处于同一量级,因此,泄漏钻铤波对测量纵横波的干扰是不可忽略的,进而本文提出一种随钻声波测井接收器的布置方法,以有效削弱测井全波中直达钻铤波和泄漏钻铤波信号的幅度.本文实验结果对认识单极源钻铤波的激发和传播机制具有重要意义.     

On the structure of acoustic emission of model samples in response to an external energy action

Experiments with a press are carried out in the regime of discrete changes in the axial load level. It is established that the energy spent on the generation of a unit acoustic pulse e1 increases by three orders of magnitude as the load increases to the sample failure value. The temporal variation patterns of the acoustic emission due to an electric action and discrete loading are shown to be identical. The structure of the initiated acoustic response is found to be very sensitive to changes in parameters of the energy applied. The measured coefficient of acoustoelectric coupling is K _me = 2.85 × 10^?2. An algorithm is proposed for the specification of an energy saturation level in model samples that is close to the in situ level. The results of this work create prerequisites for studying seismic-acoustoelectric couplings and developing schemes for controlling such processes, in particular, changes in the regime of seismicity and the release of elastic energy accumulated in the medium.     

煤岩声波特征研究现状及展望

在系统整理国内外有关研究资料的基础上,论述了煤岩超声波速度的影响因素、煤岩超声波速度与物理力学参数间的关系、煤岩超声波的频谱特征和煤岩声波衰减及各向异性方面的研究进展。针对煤岩超声横波波形复杂,初至及品质因子难以精确求取的问题,应用偏振分析方法拾取横波振相,提高了横波超声测量的精度。针对煤岩超声测试存在的问题,对今后的研究工作提出了作者的一些看法。     

单极源钻铤波传播机制的实验研究2

随钻情况下准确测量地层的纵波速度是当前声波测井领域亟待解决的技术难点之一,本文则针对地层纵波速度的随钻测量问题,在实验室内进行了缩小模型的随钻声波测井实验研究.首先,针对无限大流体模型,记录不同声源频率下单极源钻铤波的时域波形,研究钻铤内外两区域钻铤波的传播规律,定量分析这两部分钻铤波的频率响应特性.结果表明,随着声源...     

Hydraulic conditions for rill incision under simulated rainfall: A laboratory experiment

A series of controlled laboratory experiments were conducted in order to obtain precise data on the hydraulic and sediment transport conditions during rill formation. Tests were carried out using a crusting-prone binary mixed soil in a 15 m long flume at an average slope of 0·087 under simulated rainfall. Rainfall intensities varied from 30–35 mm h^?1 and developed about 70 per cent of the kinetic energy of natural rainfall of similar intensity. Runoff and sediment discharge measured at the downstream weir were strongly influenced by rill forming processes. Essentially, rill incision reduced runoff discharge as a result of increased percolation in rill channels but increased sediment discharge. Secondary entrainment processes, such as bank collapse, also increased sediment discharge at the weir. Knickpoint bifurcation and colluvial deposition, however, decreased sediment discharge. Rills always developed through the formation of a knickpoint. The critical condition for knickpoint initiation was the development of supercritical flow and waves which mould and incise the bed. Prior smoothing of the soil surface by entrainment and redistribution of sediment facilitated supercritical flow. Statistical analysis showed that hydraulic and sediment transport conditions differed significantly in rilled and unrilled flows. The relationship between sediment discharge, rill erosion, and flow hydraulics was found to be nonlinear, conforming to a standard power function in the form y = ax^b. Rills were also associated with significantly increased sediment transport capacities. However, rill initiation was not clearly defined by any specific hydraulic threshold. Instead, rilled and unrilled flows were separated by zones of transition within which both types of flow occur.     

Perfectly matched layer boundary conditions for the second-order acoustic wave equation solved by the rapid expansion method

We derive a governing second-order acoustic wave equation in the time domain with a perfectly matched layer absorbing boundary condition for general inhomogeneous media. Besides, a new scheme to solve the perfectly matched layer equation for absorbing reflections from the model boundaries based on the rapid expansion method is proposed. The suggested scheme can be easily applied to a wide class of wave equations and numerical methods for seismic modelling. The absorbing boundary condition method is formulated based on the split perfectly matched layer method and we employ the rapid expansion method to solve the derived new perfectly matched layer equation. The use of the rapid expansion method allows us to extrapolate wavefields with a time step larger than the ones commonly used by traditional finite-difference schemes in a stable way and free of dispersion noise. Furthermore, in order to demonstrate the efficiency and applicability of the proposed perfectly matched layer scheme, numerical modelling examples are also presented. The numerical results obtained with the put forward perfectly matched layer scheme are compared with results from traditional attenuation absorbing boundary conditions and enlarged models as well. The analysis of the numerical results indicates that the proposed perfectly matched layer scheme is significantly effective and more efficient in absorbing spurious reflections from the model boundaries.     

Antarctica — A unique laboratory for atmospheric studies by optical methods

Optical methods of studying the atmosphere are one valuable means of investigating atmospheric behaviour at heights ranging from less than 1 km to several hundred km. Some examples are given of results from various optical experiments carried out at Halley, Antarctica (76^oS, 27^oW;L=4.2), as is a consideration of the results of some complementary experiments. By combining observations made using different techniques, an improved understanding of atmospheric, ionospheric and magnetospheric processes is obtained.     

First samples of acoustic basement recovered from the alpha ridge, Arctic ocean: New constraints for the origin of the ridge

The Alpha Ridge is one of three subparallel trending ridges that cut the Arctic Ocean. It is roughly Late Cretaceous to Eocene in age, and seismic refraction records suggest it comprises a thick sequence of oceanic crust. During the 1983 CESAR expedition 20 similar samples of acoustic basement were dredged from the walls of a major graben of the Alpha Ridge, at one site. These are the only basement samples ever recovered from the ridge and provide the first direct evidence for its nature, composition and possible origin.The basement samples are highly altered pyroclastic rocks composed almost entirely of basaltic volcanic clasts with little matrix. Although the rocks are highly altered, most primary textures and structures are preserved. Most clasts are highly amygdaloidal to scoriaceous, fine grained to glassy, and angular to subround with rare vesicle controlled boundaries. Little reworking is suggested because a single clast type predominates, many of the clasts are subangular, and any amount of reworking would result in destruction of the delicate scoriaceous clasts.Rare clinopyroxene phenocrysts comprise the only unaltered portion of the rocks. They are salitic in composition (Wo_49–53, En_32–41, Fs_11–15), with significant amounts of Ca, Al and Ti. Salitic clinopyroxenes are typical of alkalic basalts.Interpretation of the whole rock geochemistry based on relatively immobile elements, (Nb, Zr, Tio₂, and Y), and chondrite-normalized incompatible trace element and REE patterns indicates that the volcanic rock fragments are of alkalic basalt. Geochemical discriminators suggest a within-plate tectonic setting.Textural evidence suggests that the CESAR basement rocks were sampled from a rapidly emplaced submarine fallout deposit that was erupted at a depth at least less than 800 m and likely less than 200 m. High extrusive rates would have been required to build the ridge up to shallow depth prior to the cessation of volcanism. The alkalic affinity of the rocks strongly suggests that the Alpha ridge was not formed by volcanism at an island arc or a mature spreading centre. It is also unlikely that it formed as a “leaky” fracture zone. Alkalic basalts, however, are commonly associated with various types of oceanic aseismic ridges. It is suggested that the Alpha Ridge is an aseismic ridge that formed due to voluminous hotspot volcanism as spreading began in the Canada Basin. Such hotppot activity may have been responsible for initiating the rifting, breakup, and dispersal that eventually formed the Canada Basin.     

Some results of laboratory investigations of magnetic rock samples (Serpentinites)

Summary In this paper the results ofLauterbach, Jubelt & Others are completed by photomicrographic, thermomagnetic and X-ray investigations. The rock samples consists of antigoritisated serpentinite containing veins. The material of the veins consists of magnetite and -Fe₂O₃. Some crystal physical considerations concerning the process of antigoritisation are represented.

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Zusammenfassung In vorliegender Arbeit wird über ergänzende photomikrographische, thermomagnetische und röntgenanalytische Untersuchungen zu den Ergebnissen vonLauterbach, Jubelt & Mitarbeitern berichtet. Es handelt sich hierbei um antigoritisierten Serpentinit mit eisenoxydhaltigen Zerrklüften. Einige strukturphysikalische Betrachtungen gelten den Antigoritisierungsvorgängen.

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Paper presented at the XII. General Assembly IUGG, Helsinki, 1960, Comitee on Secular Variation and Paleomagnetism.     

Lithological and physical properties of core samples from the Sagara oil field: Oil occurrence in Sagara core samples

Abstract   A drilling and coring investigation of the Sagara oil field, central Honshu, Japan, was conducted to contribute to the understanding of hydrocarbon migration processes in a forearc basin. Core samples were analyzed to determine lithology, physical properties (specifically gas permeability) and the characteristics of oil occurrence. Gas permeability values greater than approximately 10⁻¹¹ m² constitute the basic precondition for any lithology to serve as a potential fluid conduit or reservoir in the Sagara oil field. Cores recovered from the 200.6-m-deep borehole were primarily composed of alternating siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate, all of which are correlated to the late Miocene Sagara Group. Both sandstone and conglomerate can be classified into two types, carbonate-cemented and poorly to non-cemented, based on matrix material characteristics. Oil stains are generally absent in the former lithology and more common in the latter. Variations in physical properties with respect to gas permeability values are directly related to the presence and character of carbonate cement, with higher permeabilities common in poorly to non-cemented rocks. The relationships between lithology, oil-staining, cementation and permeability indicate that cementation preceded oil infiltration and that cementation processes exerted significant control on the evolution of the reservoir.