Payments for Ecosystem Services: Market Mechanism or Diversified Modes?

Payment for ecosystem services is a concept of environmental protection and method of environmental management that has “purchasing conservation” as a major feature and has grown around the world since the 1990s. It is stressed by the school of environmental economics that as a voluntary mechanism of exchange between ecological service providers and demanders, payments for ecosystem services can help to increase inputs and improve efficiency. Ecological economics holds that the ecological system and the complexity of the policy environment restrict the functional space of market mechanisms. The negative influence of the objective of giving priority to efficiency on environmental protection and social fairness cannot be neglected; therefore, the exchange mechanism is just one type of eco-compensation models. Here, we posit that payments for ecosystem services is a good tool for environmental protection and increases inputs and efficiency. Although payment for ecosystem services is confronted with challenges in application, it is playing an increasingly important role in the field of ecological services with a relatively high degree of commodification. Payments for ecosystem services can also increase the cost effectiveness of publicly managed environmental projects with the cooperation of other policy tools.     

稻田生态系统服务价值测算方法与应用——以苏州市域为例

对稻田资源的生态服务价值重视不足是稻田保护工作的最大缺陷,导致了稻田资源流失严重。本文以苏州市水稻田为例,运用造林成本法、瑞典碳税法、制氧工业成本法、替代成本法、影子工程法、当量因子法等方法对稻田生态系统各项服务价值进行了测算。结果表明,苏州市域稻田生态系统服务净总价值量为60785.18×10⁵元,单位面积净价值量为73111.84 元/hm²。其中,正面总价值量为68485.93×10⁵元,环境效应负总价值量为7700.75×10⁵元,前者为后者的8.89 倍。从稻田生态系统服务价值各部分的比例看,其实物生产价值远远低于其生态经济价值,表明了作为人工湿地生态系统,稻田生态服务价值对社会经济的可持续发展具有十分重要的作用。研究结果将有助于确定稻田保护经济补偿标准,为各级政府出台相关政策提供思路和依据     

Factors Affecting the Willingness of Farmers to Accept Eco-compensation in the Qianxi Chestnut Agroforestry System,Hebei

Ecological compensation plays an important role in promoting ecological protection. Identifying factors affecting the willingness of farmers to accept eco-compensation has become a focus of ecological economics. The Qianxi traditional chestnut agricultural heritage system is a typical agroforestry system in China and adapts the local environment well. However, local farmers concentrate on chestnut monocultures, driven by short-term profits. The local ecological environment is very fragile. We surveyed 100 local rural households. Based on face-to-face interviews and questionnaires and model assessment, we analyzed factors affecting the willingness of farmers to accept eco-compensation in the Qianxi chestnut agroforestry system of Hebei. We found that many factors influence farmer willingness to accept, including education level, household income, environmental awareness, environmental protection practices and knowledge of ecological compensation. This research provides helps clarify the mechanism of farmer participation in eco-compensation and provides a basis for further development of compensation standards that benefit the local environment.     

Comparison on Eco-compensation between the Domestic and International Studies

Because it offers an effective means to alleviate current ecological problems and a way to coordinate sustainable economic and social development with protection of the environment, eco-compensation has become a subject of interest to scholars and governments all over the world. A great many studies have been carried out and eco-compensation schemes have been put into practice; there have been many fruitful results. Based on a review of related research and practices, this paper attempts first to discuss domestic and international eco-compensation research and practices in terms of the meaning of eco-compensation and its components (stakeholders, compensation criteria, compensation modes, compensation approaches, compensation funds, and compensation effects). Next, taking into consideration the above discussion, the paper looks at the differences between Chinese and international eco-compensation measures. Finally, existing problems with eco-compensation research and practices in China are summarized and some suggestions are put forward.     

Responses of Ecosystems to Ecological Compensation in a Key Ecological Function Area of the Loess Plateau

Evaluation of the ecological effects of eco-compensation policies helps analyze policy rationality and feasibility and provides scientific and practical bases for perfecting eco-compensation systems. Taking the key ecological function area of the Loess Plateau, China as a case study, we have evaluated ecosystem responses to the Grain-for-Green Project that commenced in 1999. Six indicators were selected to assess changes in ecosystem structure, quality and function. The results showed that implementation of the Grain-for-Green Project has reduced sloping cropland by 1571 km² and increased ecological land by 1337 km². The increase in ecological land alters ecosystem structures across the study area and the decline in sloping cropland reduces farming activity interference; both of these are conducive to the restoration of natural vegetation. From 2000 to 2010, the vegetation cover of grassland, desert and forest ecosystems increased 10.89%, 8.34% and 4.24% respectively and average NPP rose 51%, with an average annual growth rate of around 5%. This indicates that eco-compensation has promoted the improvement of ecosystem quality. Total biomass of ecosystems increased two times on average from 2000 to 2010, meaning that the carbon sequestration capacity of ecosystems also increased. The reduction in the area of water loss and soil erosion and the increase in retained runoff by forests indicate an improvement in ecosystem function and services on the Loess Plateau.     

Current Status and Future Trends for Eco-compensation in China

Eco-compensation, known as payment for ecosystem services, is defined in China as an institutional arrangement for regulating the relationship of economic interests among ecological protectors, beneficiaries and destructors in order to protect ecological service function and foster harmony between people and nature with non-market and market tools including transfer payment, taxes and fees. Reasonable compensation to ecological service providers significantly contributes to the protection of ecological assets and effective supply of ecological services by adopting transfer payments or market transactions on the basis of comprehensively considering the costs of ecological protection, costs of development opportunity and ecological service values. It is helpful for implementing a strategy for main functional areas. The building of eco-compensation mechanisms is therefore highly valued as the most important institutional guarantee for promoting the ecological civilization. Existing eco-compensation mechanisms mainly fall into three categories: exchequer based transfer payment, vertical and horizontal, and market based compensation in China. The institutional framework has been primarily established, inclusive of a forest ecological benefit compensation fund system, grassland eco-compensation system and transfer payment system of national key ecological function areas. Under the framework, various areas and departments have actively explored the building of an eco-compensation system and achieved important progress for forests, grassland, wetlands, river basins and water resources, exploitation of mineral resources, oceans and national key ecological functions areas. However, the eco-compensation system dominated by vertical transfer payments is still far from perfect in China. The interest regulation pattern of “developer to protect and beneficiary to compensate” has not been formed. Its role in the protection of the ecological environment has not been brought into full play. China should improve eco-compensation systems by intensifying eco-compensation inputs, strengthening government responsibility, diversifying eco-compensation tools, and establishing institutional systems.     

祁连山水源涵养林恢复的生态补偿效应评估——以山丹段为例

祁连山森林资源丰富,但由于林区人口增长和不合理的放牧,导致水源涵养林生态系统严重退化,为了恢复与保护退化生态系统,居住在祁连山核心区的居民必须以生态移民的方式外迁,必须对他们保护生态环境所做出的贡献给予一定的补偿。通过对祁连山移民区水源涵养林直接使用价值、间接使用价值、选择价值和存在价值的计算,估算出祁连山移民区水源涵养林的生态价值大约为15432．5万元。     

基于辽河口湿地生态系统服务的等级补偿制度

作为生态补偿制度的核心问题,补偿标准存在诸多争议。随着生态系统服务的价值化与定量化,以生态服务量作为生态补偿标准逐渐成为一种共识。以辽河口湿地生态服务为研究对象,提出基于生态价值的等级补偿制度。根据环境特征,将辽河口湿地生态服务分为物质供给(石油供给、植物供给、水产品供给)、调节服务(水文调节、气候调节、污染物降解)、支持服务(生物多样性保护、促淤造陆)、文化服务(科学教育、休闲旅游)4大类。基于以上生态服务类型,采用专家打分法,分别赋予一定的权重(W)。对某一特定的生态服务而言,根据其年生态服务价值量变化率的高低,分别赋予对应的分值(S),生态服务补偿指数(In)=W×S。根据总生态补偿指数的高低,依次给予6个等级,建立合理的等级生态补偿制度,为科学制定湿地保护政策提供理论依据。     

基于产权经济学“交易费用”理论的生态补偿机制建设

生态补偿是调整损害与保护生态环境主体间利益关系的一种制度安排,也是保护生态环境的有效激励机制。基于对生态补偿等资源环境领域公共品和外部性的传统认识,相比国外,国内目前相关实践和研究尚处于政府主导的公共性转移支付阶段。随着交通通讯的发展、生态消费理念的兴起和社会支付意愿的增强,生态旅游等市场化消费方式日趋增多,生态产权交易制度日趋成熟和完善,生态服务市场价值实现的交易成本也逐渐降低。因此,生态补偿应针对不同生态系统和生态服务类型属性,以产权经济学交易费用理论为依据,逐步推进市场化制度体系建设。对案例的搜集分析、土地管理等相关制度的深入及社区参与的跟踪,有助于该领域机制研究的深化。     

巢湖流域的土地利用变化及其生态系统功能损益

基于多时点TM影像解译数据,研究了巢湖流域近30年以来的土地利用/覆盖变化,并借助于生态系统服务价值理论,估算了研究区土地利用/覆盖类型变化所造成的生态系统服务价值损益。由于巢湖流域主要以水田为主,生态服务价值较高,同时考虑该区域水田一年两季的耕作特点,单位面积耕地生态系统服务价值是全国平均值的两倍,单位面积林草地的生态系统服务价值是全国平均价值的1.45倍。研究结果表明:巢湖流域近30年生态服务功能价值损失了831.68×10⁶元,年均损失27.7×10⁶元,并呈现逐年加剧趋势;流域生态服务价值损失量空间分布极不平衡,合肥每年生态服务价值损失量超过流域均值5倍,由此表明大城市扩张对巢湖流域生态服务价值损益作用明显。     

基于投入产出方法的中国省域产业生态补偿研究

基于区域关联的视角,构建了省域生态补偿框架。运用投入产出方法,在2010年中国区域间投入产出表的基础上,以2010年统计数据为例,对中国省域间产业的土地资源占用量进行了测算。研究结果表明：①农林牧渔业大多属于被占用型产业,农业的发展应得到补偿;②工业属于占用型产业,应付出一定的生态资源补偿费;③建筑业在消费、投资情境下,属于占用型产业;在出口情境下,省域差异较大;④交通运输及仓储业,在消费和投资情境下,大多为占用型产业;而在出口情境下,省域差异较大;⑤批发零售业大多为占用型产业,应该承担生态补偿的责任;⑥其他服务业在消费情景下,大多为占用型产业;而出口和投资情景下,则大多为被占用型产业。最后,从加强产业生态补偿的立法、完善产业生态补偿的税收手段等方面,提出了相关政策建议。     

Eco-compensati on in Guanting Reservoir Watershed Based on Spatiotemporal Variations of Water Yield and Purification Services

Guanting Reservoir (GR) is one of the most important water sources for Beijing and neighboring regions. Due to water pollution, it was withdrawn from the system to supply Beijing drinking water; however, after a thorough treatment process, GR was made a reserve water source since 2007. To develop a comprehensive and quantitative analysis of water yield and purification services in the GR watershed, this study selected two time periods: the period when GR was withdrawn from the system supplying local drinking water and the period that it has been designated a reserve water source. The InVEST model was used to evaluate the quantities of water yields, and total nitrogen and total phosphorus outputs from 1995 to 2010 Additionally, the spatiotemporal variations of water yield services and water quality purification services in the GR watershed were analyzed. The results showed that water yield services in the GR watershed first weakened and then became stronger, but weakened overall during the years 1995 to 2010. Water yield capacity in the basin decreased from 1.89×109 m³ in 1995 to 1.43×109 m³ in 2010 (a drop of 24.0% in total). Water quality purification services also showed the same tendency. Total nitrogen output decreased from 4028.7 t in 1995 to 3611.4 t in 2010, while total phosphorus decreased from 379.7 t in 1995 to 354.0 t in 2010. Nitrogen and phosphorus purification services were enhanced by 10.4% and 6.8%, respectively. Changes in the climate and land use were the main factors which lead to the changes in the water yield service in the GR watershed. Policies intended to protect water resource have matched the varying trends of water quality purification services during different periods. On one hand, the research results provide a foundation to identify key fields for eco-compensation in the Guanting Reservoir basin. On another hand, the ecosystem service value will increase on the basis of eco-compensation criteria through setting the scenarios of returning farmland to forest and ecological protection. This method directly reflects increases in ecosystem service values that have occurred since measures to protect the ecological environment have been implemented. This method is more persuasive and feasible than using eco-compensation criteria based on regional ecosystem service values determined by land use/ coverage type. It can provide a new way to assess eco-compensation in the Guanting Reservoir basin and other regions.     

1987-2012 年中国生态补偿研究进展及趋势

选取《中国学术文献网络出版总库》文献,从文献作者、研究领域、支撑平台、研究方法、研究区域、研究层次6 个方面,对1987-2012 年国内生态补偿研究进行评析。在文献作者方面,国内生态补偿研究尚未形成强大的核心作者群;从年度文献数量看,可将研究领域划分为4 种类型,即急剧上升型、平缓上升型、平缓稳定型和下降型;从研究区域看,国内生态补偿研究以省域层面的研究成果较多,涉及到30 多个地域类型区;在研究方法上,早期研究生态补偿大多为定性描述,目前过渡到定性与定量研究相结合;在研究层次方面,最初生态补偿研究大多为自然科学类基础与应用基础研究,后转向技术指导与政策决策支撑方面的社会科学应用研究。最后,从研究领域、研究区域、研究方法、项目支撑以及研究挑战5个方面讨论了国内生态补偿研究的未来发展趋势。     

雄安新区生态系统服务簇权衡与协同

河北雄安新区建设是千年大计、国家大事。在生态优先、绿色发展理念引领下,深入理解生态系统服务间关系对于优化国土空间开发保护、实现自然资源可持续管理具有重要意义。本文基于多源数据评估了雄安新区四种生态系统服务,分析了生态系统服务间关系,并利用自组织映射特征网络划分了生态系统服务簇,以期为新区统筹权衡规划建设提供科学依据。研究结果表明：雄安新区生物多样性维持服务供给总体呈从东北向西南递增;食物供给服务在安新县与容城县供给较高,在雄县供给较低;产水服务供给以西南部地区较高,东北部地区较低;娱乐服务供给则以中北部地区较高,西南部地区较低。不同类型生态系统服务间多为协同关系,少为权衡关系。识别出四种生态系统服务簇,不同服务簇的主要土地利用类型及服务供给特点均存在差异,食物供给簇以旱地为主,主要提供食物供给服务;文化娱乐簇也以旱地为主,主要提供娱乐服务;生态保育簇以水域、旱地和林地为主,主要提供生物多样性维持服务;城镇生活簇则以建设用地为主,也包括少部分水田,主要以产水服务较高。根据不同生态系统服务供给间关系特征,为新区合理确定土地利用变更时序与位置以及促进多重生态系统服务可持续供给提出了建议。     

Ecological compensation for desertification control: A review

Desertification control is a crucial way to enhancing the ecological conditions of arid and semi-arid regions, and maintaining sustainable development globally. Designing and improving an ecological compensation mechanism for desertification control has great significance related to achieving balance amongst the needs of different economic subjects and the assurance of a sustained and stable supply of desert ecosystem services. In this paper, (1) the theoretical bases of ecological compensation for desertification control were re-analyzed; (2) the research status and challenges of three important topics related to ecological compensation for desertification control were systemically discussed, including compensation standards, ecosystem service supply-consumption process and multi-scale effects, and resource- environment basis and policy orientation; (3) a research framework of ecological compensation for desertification control based on the process of desert ecosystem service supply–flow–consumption was proposed; (4) and finally, seven priority research issues were discussed, which aimed to support ecological compensation policy-making and ecological engineering implementation for desertification control.     

基于生态价值核算的土地利用政策环境评价

作为战略环境评价的一种类型,政策环境评价是指对已有的或计划制定的政策及其替代方案可能产生的环境影响进行的系统、综合的评价过程.文章以生态系统服务功能价值为评价指标,通过对政策实施前后生态服务功能价值变化的比较分析,对吉林省生态省建设中土地利用政策的环境影响进行定量分析评价.结果表明,从生态环境和自然资源保护角度出发,该政策基本可行,但需要加强对社会用地等方面的控制.文章对生态系统服务功能价值核算理论的应用以及政策环境评价方法进行了探索.     

Game strategies in government-led eco-compensation in the Xin’an River Basin from the perspective of the politics of scale

China's policy on ecological compensation (eco-compensation) in watershed eco-systems is of economic,social and environmental significance for China's ecological gov-ernance and protection of natural areas.It involves balancing the interests of regional stakeholders,coordinating the development of regional environments and establishing effec-tive cooperation models,making it a classic topic for geographical research.This study in-troduces the concept of institutional "stickiness" to the theory of politics of scale to analyze the features and mechanisms of the game behavior of government entities in the process of im-plementing watershed eco-compensation in the Xin'an River Basin.Our results show the following:government entities at various levels,including the central,provincial and municipal governments,experienced the three stages of game strategy of competition,cooperation and"coopetition";building a government community of shared interests can promote watershed eco-compensation,and "appropriate intervention" by the central govemment is key to achieving inter-provincial watershed eco-compensation;there was clear institutional stickiness during the transition from a "vertical" model of watershed eco-compensation to a "vertical-horizontal"model,with government entities using policy innovations and social participation to limit and reduce stickiness so as to reshape the watershed eco-compensation system;scalar jumping is the core mechanism that promoted eco-compensation in the study basin,and government entities shaped the discourse on watershed eco-compensation by redistributing powers and capital and creating informal constraints,which promoted the transformation of eco-compensation from a "strong state-weak society" structural model,to a "strong state-strong society" model in the Xin'an River Basin.These results can provide theoretical support for the construction of inter-regional watershed eco-compensation mechanisms,pro-vide a scientific basis for the rational evaluation and guidance of watershed eco-compensation practices,and promote the coordinated and sustainable socioeconomic development of watersheds.     

生态补偿空间选择与分配的重要性及研究动态

指出生态补偿标准的关键或实质是空间选择与分配问题,并根据国内生态补偿项目运行的独特环境,围绕补偿效益这一内在目标,分析生态补偿空间选择与分配的重要性;论述与比较了国际与国内的相关研究动向;结合一个生态公益林补偿配置的研究框架,指出了政府主导型生态补偿空间优化配置的解决方向．     

基于生态系统服务视角的“土地分离与共享框架”解析

“土地分离和共享框架”是协调物质生产和生态保护、促进土地可持续利用的重要理论。本文梳理了“土地分离与共享框架”和生态系统服务间关联,剖析生态系统服务应用于该框架的理论基础,结合美国典型土地共享案例,分析了土地利用策略选择对粮食生产、生物多样性、直接和间接生态系统服务的影响,并探讨了该框架对中国生态系统工程的启示。结果表明：随着人类对土地功能认知的不断深入,“土地分离与共享框架”的拓展表现为从单一的粮食供给服务需求演进到粮食供给服务和其他生态系统服务的综合需求。当粮食供给服务与其他服务处于权衡状态时,在生态脆弱、恢复力差的地区,不同生态系统服务间多处于凸权衡关系,一般适宜采用分离策略;在生态系统稳定、恢复力强的地区,不同生态系统服务多处于凹权衡关系,一般适宜采用共享策略。结合美国典型土地共享案例发现,其土地利用实践中选择土地功能共享策略是比较适宜的;生态系统服务作为政策评估工具,可在策略选择和评估实施效果中发挥一定作用。研究结果可为可持续土地利用提供理论与方法支撑,并为中国制定土地利用策略提供参考。     

中国地理学中的甘南研究

区域研究是地理学的核心领域,开展区域研究需要选择既具全球意义又具区域特色,且符合国家重大战略需求的关键区域。作为“第三极”的重要组成部分,地处青藏高原东北缘的甘南高原不仅是典型的地理过渡区与生态脆弱区,也是重要的生态功能区与深度贫困区,因而成为中国地理学开展区域研究的最佳实验区之一。在阐述甘南高原地理学研究价值的基础上,从陆地地表过程与机理、土地利用/覆被变化、农户对气候变化的感知及适应、生态系统服务与生态补偿机制、农户生计及其对生态环境的影响、社会资本与区域发展、城镇化与乡村聚落、旅游发展等领域出发,系统梳理了中国地理学中的甘南研究现状,提出新时期应以更综合的多维视角开展甘南研究,重点关注甘南高原地表格局-过程集成研究、人地耦合系统演化与区域可持续发展、生态系统服务与生态补偿、可持续生计、新型城镇化、乡村发展等关键问题。