On the interaction of turbulent and radiative transfers in the surface layer

The turbulent heat flux is usually assumed constant with height in the atmospheric surface layer. The validity of this hypothesis is known to be questionable, due to a possible variation along the vertical of the infrared radiative heat flux.This problem is approached theoretically, using semi-empirical expressions for emissivities, and assuming logarithmic temperature and humidity profiles. A first approximation of the radiative heat flux divergence is thus obtained analytically, as a function of the surface layer parameters. Numerical application to the case of an underlying water surface reveals appreciable variations of the radiative and turbulent heat fluxes in the first ten meters of the atmosphere, especially when wind velocity is low and humidity is high.These preliminary results are presented here for discussion. If accepted, they could lead to a reinterpretation of some experimental data, and should permit an extension of turbulent transfer theories to the case of a variable heat flux.Chargé de Recherches au C.N.R.S.Assistant I.N.R.A., Station de Bioclimatologie de Montfavet.Contributed paper to IUGG-IAMAP-AMS Conference on Planetary Boundary Layers, Boulder (Colorado), March 18–21, 1970.     

A DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FLUXES AND METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS OVER TROPICAL WESTERN PACIFIC

Through the use of the hourly wind, air temperature and humidity, sea surface temperature data measured on board the observing vessel Moana Wave and buoy in the warm pool of western Pacific during the IOP of TOGA COARE, we compute the fluxes over sea surface and analyze the characteristics of the variation ofthe latent heat flux with sea surface temperature. During weak rather than strong wind periods a maximum valueof latent heat flux appears at some points of SST, which is caused mainly by the variations of wind, then by the humidity difference between air and sea and the transfer coefficient with SAT. Using correlation analysis. we also analyze the relationship between the fluxes and meteorological elements during weak wind periods. wester lywind burst periods, and convective disturbed periods etc. The main conclusions are that the latent heat flux ismainly determined by wind, sensible heat flux by the potential temperature difference between air and sea and the momentum flux by wind. The precipitation affects the sensible heat flux through the potential temperature difference and wind.     

Variability of Sub-Canopy Flow,Temperature, and Horizontal Advection in Moderately Complex Terrain

We examine the space–time structure of the wind and temperature fields, as well as that of the resulting spatial temperature gradients and horizontal advection of sensible heat, in the sub-canopy of a forest with a dense overstorey in moderately complex terrain. Data were collected from a sensor network consisting of ten stations and subject to orthogonal decomposition using the multiresolution basis set and stochastic analyses including two-point correlations, dimensional structure functions, and various other bulk measures for space and time variability. Despite some similarities, fundamental differences were found in the space–time structure of the motions dominating the variability of the sub-canopy wind and temperature fields. The dominating motions occupy similar spatial, but different temporal, scales. A conceptual space–time diagram was constructed based on the stochastic analysis that includes the important end members of the spatial and temporal scales of the observed motions of both variables. Short-lived and small-scale motions govern the variability of the wind, while the diurnal temperature oscillation driven by the surface radiative transfer is the main determinant of the variability in the temperature signal, which occupies much larger time scales. This scale mismatch renders Taylor’s hypothesis for sub-canopy flow invalid and aggravates the computation of meaningful estimates of horizontal advective fluxes without dense spatial information. It may further explain the ambiguous and inconclusive results reported in numerous energy and mass balance and advection studies evaluating the hypothesis that accounting for budget components other than the change in storage term and the vertical turbulent flux improves the budget closure when turbulent diffusion is suppressed in plant canopies. Estimates of spatial temperature gradients and advective fluxes were sensitive to the network geometry and the spatial interpolation method. The assumption of linear spatial temperature gradients was not supported by the results, and leads to increased spatial and temporal variability of inferred spatial gradients and advection estimates. A method is proposed to estimate the appropriate minimum network size of wind and temperature sensors suitable for an evaluation of energy and mass balances by reducing spatial and temporal variability of the spatially sampled signals, which was estimated to be on the order of 200 m at the study site.     

The role of radiative-convective interaction in creating the microclimate of urban street canyons

An approximate sky view factor (SVF) has been developed, which is capable of estimating the mean rate of net longwave radiant energy loss from urban street canyons. Reduced scale models of typical canyon geometries were used in outdoor tests to verify the predictions of radiant fluxes obtained using the proposed SVF. Air-surface temperature differences from the scale models are used together with hypothesized within-canyon airflow patterns to determine some quantitative characteristics of the wind field in canyons. Simple correlations are proposed for the relationship between mean in-canyon and pedestrian-level flow speeds on the one hand, and the ambient (above roof-level) wind speed on the other hand. As expected, the height/width ratio of a canyon controls the form and magnitude of the flow within.     

Relative importance of parameters affecting wind speed prediction using artificial neural networks

In traditional artificial neural networks (ANN) models, the relative importance of the individual meteorological input variables is often overlooked. A case study is presented in this paper to model monthly wind speed values using meteorological data (air pressure, air temperature, relative humidity, and precipitation), where the study also includes an estimate of the relative importance of these variables. Recorded monthly mean data are available at a gauging site in Tabriz, Azerbaijan, Iran, for the period from 2000 to 2005, gauged in the city at the outskirt of alluvial funneling mountains with an established microclimatic conditions and a diurnal wind regime. This provides a sufficiently severe test for the ANN model with a good predictive capability of 1 year of lead time but without any direct approach to refer the predicted results to local microclimatic conditions. A method is used in this paper to calculate the relative importance of each meteorological input parameters affecting wind speed, showing that air pressure and precipitation are the most and least influential parameters with approximate values of 40 and 10 %, respectively. This gained knowledge corresponds to the local knowledge of the microclimatic and geomorphologic conditions surrounding Tabriz.     

Factors influencing the marine boundary layer during a cold-air outbreak

The model for the cloud-topped marine boundary layer during a cold air outbreak developed by Stage and Businger (1981a) is used in conjunction with a test profile based on a fall outbreak episode over Lake Ontario to study factors influencing marine boundary-layer evolution. Sensitivity tests are done which show changes in layer evolution resulting from variation of wind speed, radiative sky temperature, water surface temperature, humidity of the shoreline sounding and divergence. The behavior of the layer in the presence of a region of cold-water upwelling near the shore is also investigated. It is found that the main effect of the upwelling region is to delay modification of the boundary-layer air.     

Seasonal and spatial variation of radiative effects of anthropogenic sulfate aerosol

On the basis of the emission data of the industrial sulphur dioxide (SO2) and observed climate fields over East Asia, the distribution of anthropogenic sulfate aerosol (SO) with seasonal variation in the troposphere is simulated and analyzed by a regional sulfur transport model, and the direct radiative effects of SO under different weather conditions are also calculated using the discrete ordinate method. The results show that the concentration of SO has significant seasonal and spatial variations resulting from the effects of SO2 emission source and precipita-tion and wind fields. Both the concentration of SO2 and its radiative forcing have the largest values in October and the lowest in July. SO causes the decrease of the radiation flux absorbed by earth-atmosphere and the cooling of air temperature by scattering more solar radiation back into space. Besides, the radiative and climatic effects of SO are related to the types and height and optical thickness, etc., of the clouds.     

宁夏南部山区天然草场不同植被覆盖度的小气候特征比较

利用不同季节小气候加密观测和小气候常规观测资料,通过分析西吉月亮山禁牧草场和鸦儿湾荒地近地层气温、地温、风速、相对湿度等要素的差异和日变化特征,探讨了不同下垫面下小气候变化的趋势。结果表明:封山禁牧后,下垫面随之变化,会产生所谓的“绿岛效应”,尤其在植被生长旺盛的夏季,气温明显下降,空气湿度增大。说明封山禁牧这一措施对脆弱生态的恢复改造有明显的效果。     

Modeling microclimate environments: A verification study

A numerical model is developed for simulating microclimate of plants and bare soil. The model evaluates heat, mass, momentum, and radiative fluxes in the soil-plant-atmosphere system. Its vertical domain may extend throughout the whole Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL). The model requires, either, temporal meteorological data of solar radiation, wind speed, air temperature and humidity measured over the field, or, when applied to the whole PBL, initial values of the latter three at its top. Vegetation parameters (leaf area index, photometric properties, root distribution and density) as well as soil texture, hydraulic and photometric properties are considered. The model was verified with meteorological data taken from two different climatological regions, above a bare soil and two cotton fields.For all case studies, observed and calculated values of air (except for within-canopy) and soil temperatures, wind speed, net radiation, and soil-, latent-, and sensible heat fluxes, agreed well with measurements.     

Numerical Simulation of the Novaya Zemlya Bora

The development of the bora in case of strong southeastern wind in the area of Novaya Zemlya in the winter-spring of 2016 is simulated using the WRF-ARW numerical atmosphere circulation model with high spatial resolution. The features of wind speed and air temperature fields are considered which define the formation of the intensive near-surface flow, the bora, over the lee western slope of the mountain range. It is demonstrated that the bora development leads to the air temperature rise over the eastern part of the Barents Sea, to the increased surface heat fluxes, and to the formation of the cloudless zone over the sea westward of Novaya Zemlya. It was found that the main reason for the bora development is the high stability of the atmospheric boundary layer over the Kara Sea. It is shown that in case of western wind the Novaya Zemlya archipelago does not exert considerable influence on the air exchange in the Kara Sea area.     

深圳不同发展程度地区的舒适度特征分析

利用广东省深圳市22个气象站2013-2017年共5年的逐时气象观测数据, 计算了舒适度指数并分析其空间分布特征, 结合天空开阔度和社会人口、经济数据对深圳各区分类, 对比分析不同发展进程的3种典型区域的舒适度指数以及舒适、不舒适日数和日变化等特征。结果表明深圳舒适度指数分布具有较明显空间差异, 舒适日数最多的地区是生态环境保护最好的东部。深圳的天空开阔度(Sky View Factor, SVF)空间分布与夏季舒适度指数的空间分布存在显著关联, 夏季SVF数值较小的地区通常更趋向热不舒适。发达地区的舒适度指数明显大于新兴发展地区和未发展地区, 5年的舒适度指数时间序列表明, 新兴发展地区的夏季舒适度指数变化幅度最大, 这与近5年新兴发展地区发展迅速有关。3种典型区域的舒适度指数总体上均呈上升趋势, 这与全球变暖和珠三角区域的快速发展进程关系密切。此外, 发达地区和新兴发展地区的舒适度指数日变化幅度明显大于未发展地区。      

1958～2018年永定河流域蒸发皿蒸发量的变化特征及其影响因子分析

基于永定河流域1958～2018年14个气象站的逐日观测数据,采用气候倾向率、Mann–Kendall趋势检验法分析蒸发皿蒸发量时空变化特征,并通过完全相关系数和多元回归分析识别气候因子与蒸发量的相关程度并定量计算其贡献率.结果表明:在全球气候变暖的背景下,60年来永定河流域气温以0.29°C/10 a的速率上升,而蒸...     

Further Development of the Vegetated Urban Canopy Model Including a Grass-Covered Surface Parametrization and Photosynthesis Effects

The vegetated urban canopy model (VUCM), which includes parametrizations of urban physical processes for artificial surfaces and vegetated areas in an integrated system, has been further developed by including physical processes associated with grass-covered surfaces in urban pervious surfaces and the photosynthesis effects of urban vegetation. Using measurements made from three urban/suburban sites during the BUBBLE field campaign in 2002, the model’s performance in modelling surface fluxes (momentum flux, net radiation, sensible and latent heat fluxes and storage heat flux) and canopy air conditions (canopy air temperature and specific humidity) was critically evaluated for the non-precipitation and the precipitation days. The observed surface fluxes at the urban/suburban sites were significantly altered by precipitation as well as urban vegetation. Especially, the storage heat at urban surfaces and underlying substrates varied drastically depending on weather conditions while having an important role in the formation of a nocturnal urban surface layer. Unlike the nighttime canopy air temperature that was largely affected by the storage-heat release, the daytime canopy air conditions were highly influenced by the vertical turbulent exchange with the overlying atmosphere. The VUCM well reproduced these observed features in surface fluxes and canopy air conditions at all sites while performing well for both the non-precipitation and the precipitation days. The newly implemented parametrizations clearly improved the model’s performance in the simulation of sensible and latent heat fluxes at the sites, more noticeably at the suburban site where the vegetated area fraction is the largest among the sites. Sensitivity analyses for model input parameters in VUCM elucidated the relative importance of the morphological, aerodynamic, hydrological and radiative/thermal properties in modelling urban surface fluxes and canopy air conditions for daytime and nighttime periods. These results suggest that the VUCM has great potential for urban atmospheric numerical modelling for a range of cities and weather conditions in addition to having a better physical basis in the representation of urban vegetated areas and associated physical processes.     

大连地区阵风系数特征分析

利用2015年5月至2020年4月辽宁省大连地区9个国家气象站、2017年165个区域气象站逐10 min测风资料,从风向、风级、月际变化、日变化、空间分布和天气影响系统等对大连地区最大、平均、最小阵风系数进行统计分析。结果表明：1—12月平均阵风系数的变化范围为1.66～1.77,秋末冬初平均阵风系数偏大,春夏季节偏小;与冷空气相对应风向的平均阵风系数大于与暖空气相对应的风向;随着风级的增大,最大、最小阵风系数向平均阵风系数收敛;不同风级下阵风系数的频率分布均呈单峰型分布,风级越大,分布范围越窄。除西南风外,其他风向的阵风系数均表现出白天大、夜间小的特点。大连地区阵风系数具有明显的地域特点,东南和西北部沿海区域的阵风系数比内陆和西南沿海偏小,风向基本不影响阵风系数的空间分布。大连的大风过程多受海上气旋和高压前部双系统共同影响,气旋、台风以及雷暴大风的平均阵风系数大于同风级的平均值。     

Some Characteristics of the Surface Boundary Layer of a Strong Cold Air Process over Southern China

In southern China,cold air is a common weather process during the winter season;it can cause strong wind,sharp temperature decreases,and even the snow or freezing rain events.However,the features of the atmospheric boundary layer during cold air passage are not clearly understood due to the lack of comprehensive observation data,especially regarding turbulence.In this study,four-layer gradient meteorological observation data and one-layer,10-Hz ultrasonic anemometer-thermometer monitoring data from the northern side of Poyang Lake were employed to study the main features of the surface boundary layer during a strong cold-air passage over southern China.The results show that,with the passage of a cold air front,the wind speed exhibits low-frequency variations and that the wind systematically descends.During the strong wind period,the wind speed increases with height in the surface layer.Regular gust packets are superimposed on the basic strong wind flow.Before the passage of cold air,the wind gusts exhibit a coherent structure.The wind and turbulent momentum fluxes are small,although the gusty wind momentum flux is slightly larger than the turbulent momentum flux.However,during the invasion of cold air,both the gusty wind and turbulent momentum fluxes increase rapidly with wind speed,and the turbulent momentum flux is larger than the gusty wind momentum flux during the strong wind period.After the cold air invasion,this structure almost disappears.     

In the Core of the Night-Effects of Intermittent Mixing on a Horizontally Heterogeneous Surface

Intermittent breakdowns that accompany wind gusts at the surface are responsible for a large fraction of the turbulent exchange between the surface and the upper boundary layer in the core of clear nights. Vertical and horizontal structure of the breakdowns are investigated using data from a network of 26 stations in an area of 30 km × 30 km. Surface heterogeneity in the area includes complex terrain with different types of land cover. We treat the fine-scale landscape structure near sensors (sheltering) as a separate component of heterogeneity. These features have important consequences on the spatial distribution of mean variables and surface fluxes. We found that breakdowns connect the surface layer to a higher level (level H_C). Weak wind gusts below a threshold (approximately 1.5 m s^-1) mix the air down to the colder ground, cooling the surface layer. On the other hand, wind gusts above this threshold promote mixing with upper levels, warming the surface layer. The spatial maximum of surface temperature over the network can be used as an estimate of the temperature at H_C, allowing vertical gradients and stability to be approximated. Minimum temperature is a function of topography and sheltering. Appreciable surface fluxes at night occur primarily at high, open locations, and can be large enough there to influencearea-averaged values. Surface-fluxparameterizations currently used in mesoscale models were tested first by estimating fluxes at each station and aggregating, and then by formingarea-averages before estimating fluxes. Results show that these formulations underestimate the average surface fluxes over a region for most of the nights.     

Heat and moisture fluxes on the time scale of 20 to 60 days over the Indian monsoon area

Summary In this paper we have studied the low frequency variability of the sensible and latent heat flux over the Indian monsoon area. We have used an atmospheric energy budget (vertical integrated heat sources and moisture sinks), as well as the similarity theory in order to compute the surface fluxes on a darly basis. Mainly, the three following data sets were used: the First GARP Global Experiment analyzed data, the TIROS-N outgoing longwave radiation data and the Monsoon Experiment precipitation data.Our three main findings are the following. First, the variability of the temperature and the specific humidity at the surface is more important over the land than over the sea on the intraseasonal time scale (30% over land, but 20% over sea). For the wind an energy peak appears clearly around 30–40 days. The surface fluxes show an uneven variance percentage field (10% to 40%); the energy peaks stretch from 10 to 40 days. Second, the wind has a significant influence on the surface fluxes, except at some locations exclusively over the land areas. Of the temperature and the specific humidity, the temperature is the one which influences the fluxes the most. (This influence may be very strong over land.) The specific humidity may have a significant influence, over the land and sea, at the same time. Thus, one cannot neglect the influence of temperature and specific humidity over land on the intraseasonal time scale. Third, we have found a close relation between the propagation of low frequency waves and the propagation of surface flux patterns. This may suggest a feedback mechanism which relates surface processes to the northward propagation of these waves over India.With 17 FiguresOn leave from Etablissement d'études et de recherches méteorologiques Paris, France     

城市空间形态学参数与晴好天气下热岛强度关系

以澳大利亚阿德莱德中心城区为研究区,基于高分辨率城市三维建筑物数据计算得到天空开阔度 (sky view factor,SVF) 与迎风面积指数 (frontal area index,FAI),并将其与晴好天气下四季的城市热岛强度进行相关性分析。结果表明:晴好天气下,阿德莱德城市热岛强度 (urban heat island intensity,UHII) 在2010—2011年四季均呈现出夜间强、白天弱的变化特征。SVF与UHII在夜间呈显著线性负相关,白天呈线性正相关;而FAI与UHII在四季的夜间和早晨时段呈对数关系,白天呈线性负相关。SVF和FAI对不同季节、不同时刻的城市热岛影响不同,在不同空间尺度下的适用性也存在差异,SVF在不同空间尺度下适用性更强。     

Reduced Horizontal Sea Surface Temperature Gradients Under Conditions of Clear Skies and Weak Winds

Consideration of the dependence of various components of the sea-surface heat and momentum fluxes on sea surface temperature (SST) leads to an explanation for the observed reduction in the horizontal temperature gradients in the uppermost layer of the ocean (a few to 10 m in depth). Horizontal temperature gradients within the mixed layer can be masked by a near-surface layer of warm water. This camouflage of horizontal temperature gradients has importance for the remote sensing of SST used by the fishing industry, for the estimation of acoustic transmission, and for the forecasting of hurricane development, among many uses of SST data. Diurnal warming conditions in the Straits of Florida are examined by a simulation calculation and by analysis of observations obtained on moorings deployed on the south-east Florida shelf. When there is net heating (i.e., the solar input is stronger than the combined latent, sensible and longwave radiative heat losses) the originally warmer water experiences less heating than the colder water, leading to a weakening of the horizontal SST gradients as seen by surface buoys or satellites. The warmer water also experiences more mixing and therefore less increase in temperature. The strongest effect of the diurnal heating on wind stress occurs when the SST starts out cooler than the air temperature and the atmosphere is stably stratified. Diurnal warming can then rapidly increase the SST above the air temperature because of reduced wind stress and reduced upper-ocean mixing. After that the wind stress increases as convectively driven turbulence contributes to the atmospheric exchange.     

High resolution flight observations and numerical simulations: horizontal variability in the wintertime boreal boundary layer

Summary  High resolution aircraft observations made along flight tracks over inhomogeneous surface in the late wintertime boreal zone are described and compared to 2D mesoscale model simulations with surface properties defined at 2 km resolution from maps. All observations displayed the expected small-scale turbulence. On top of that, the near-surface wind speeds (but not directions) showed mesoscale variations related to local topography and roughness. Upward (but not downward) SW and LW radiative fluxes and ground temperature also displayed mesoscale variability; in SW radiation this was clearly due to local albedo changes. In the sensible heat flux there was strong horizontal variation near the surface in correlation with surface types. The above observed mesoscale along-track variations were reasonably well represented by the mesoscale model simulation. The track-averaged observed sensible and latent heat flux profiles were in rough agreement with a mixing length approach, which used the track-averaged wind, temperature and moisture profiles as input (mimicking a first-order turbulence closure scheme of a GCM). Received September 20, 1999 Revised January 21, 2000