Long-Term Variability of the Wind Field over the Indian Ocean Based on ERA-Interim Reanalysis

A detailed study of long-term variability of winds using 30 years of data from the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts global reanalysis (ERA-Interim) over the Indian Ocean has been carried out by partitioning the Indian Ocean into six zones based on local wind extrema. The trend of mean annual wind speed averaged over each zone shows a significant increase in the equatorial region, the Southern Ocean, and the southern part of the trade winds. This indicates that the Southern Ocean winds and the southeast trade winds are becoming stronger. However, the trend for the Bay of Bengal is negative, which might be caused by a weakening of the monsoon winds and northeast trade winds. Maximum interannual variability occurs in the Arabian Sea due to monsoon activity; a minimum is observed in the subtropical region because of the divergence of winds. Wind speed variations in all zones are weakly correlated with the Dipole Mode Index (DMI). However, the equatorial Indian Ocean, the southern part of the trade winds, and subtropical zones show a relatively strong positive correlation with the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), indicating that the SOI has a zonal influence on wind speed in the Indian Ocean. Monsoon winds have a decreasing trend in the northern Indian Ocean, indicating monsoon weakening, and an increasing trend in the equatorial region because of enhancement of the westerlies. The negative trend observed during the non-monsoon period could be a result of weakening of the northeast trade winds over the past few decades. The mean flux of kinetic energy of wind (FKEW) reaches a minimum of about 100?W?m^?2 in the equatorial region and a maximum of about 1500?W?m^?2 in the Southern Ocean. The seasonal variability of FKEW is large, about 1600?W?m^?2, along the coast of Somalia in the northern Indian Ocean. The maximum monthly variability of the FKEW field averaged over each zone occurs during boreal summer. During the onset and withdrawal of monsoon, FKEW is as low as 50?W?m^?2. The Southern Ocean has a large variation of about 1280?W?m^?2 because of strong westerlies throughout the year.     

Seasonal variation of atmospheric dimethylsulfide at Amsterdam Island in the southern Indian Ocean

Daily measurements of atmospheric concentrations of dimethylsulfide (DMS) were carried out for two years in a marine site at remote area: the Amsterdam Island (37°50S–77°31E) located in the southern Indian Ocean. DMS concentrations were also measured in seawater. A seasonal variation is observed for both DMS in the atmosphere and in the sea-surface. The monthly averages of DMS concentrations in the surface coastal seawater and in the atmosphere ranged, respectively, from 0.3 to 2.0 nmol l^-1 and from 1.4 to 11.3 nmol m^-3 (34 to 274 pptv), with the highest values in summer. The monthly variation of sea-to-air flux of DMS from the southern Indian Ocean ranges from 0.7 to 4.4 mol m^-2 d^-1. A factor of 2.3 is observed between summer and winter with mean DMS fluxes of 3.0 and 1.3 mol m^-2 d^-1, respectively.     

Characteristics of Atmospheric Heat Sources in the Tibetan Plateau-Tropical Indian Ocean Region

Investigating the temporal and spatial distributions of the atmospheric heat sources(AHS) over the Tibetan Plateau-Tropical Indian Ocean(TP-TIO) region is of great importance for the understanding of the evolution and development of the South Asian summer monsoon(SASM). This study used the Japanese 55-year Reanalysis(JRA-55) data from 1979 to 2016 and adopted statistical methods to study the characteristics of the AHS between the TP and TIO, and theirs link to the SASM on an interannual scale. The results indicated that the monthly variations of the AHS in the two regions were basically anti-phase, and that the summer AHS in the TP was obviously stronger than that in the TIO. There were strong AHS and atmospheric moisture sink(AMS) centers in both the eastern and western TP in summer. The AHS center in the east was stronger than that in the west, and the AMS centers showed the opposite pattern. In the TIO, a strong AHS center in the northwest-southeast direction was located near 10°S, 90°E.Trend analysis showed that summer AHS in the TIO was increasing significantly, especially before 1998, whereas there was a weakening trend in the TP. The difference of the summer AHS between the TP and TIO(hereafter IQ)was used to measure the thermal contrast between the TP and the TIO. The IQ showed an obvious decreasing trend.After 1998, there was a weak thermal contrast between the TP and the TIO, which mainly resulted from the enhanced AHS in the TIO. The land-sea thermal contrast, the TIO Hadley circulation in the southern hemisphere and the SASM circulation all weakened, resulting in abnormal circulation and abnormal precipitation in the Bay of Bengal(BOB).     

印度洋对ENSO事件的响应:观测与模拟

观测事实显示,在El Ni(n～)o期间,伴随着赤道中东太平洋表层海温(SST)的升高,热带印度洋SST出现正距平.作者利用海气耦合模式模拟了印度洋对ENSO事件的上述响应,并进而讨论了其物理机制.所用模式为法国国家科研中心Pierre-Simon-Laplace 全球环境科学联合实验室(IPSL)发展的全球海气耦合模式.该模式成功地控制了气候漂移,能够合理再现印度洋的基本气候态.观测中与ENSO相关的热带印度洋SST变化,表现为全海盆一致的正距平,并且这种变化要滞后赤道中东太平洋SST变化大约一个季度,意味着它主要是对东太平洋SST强迫的一种遥响应,模式结果也支持这一机制,尽管模式中的南方涛动现象被夸大了,使得模拟的与ENSO相关联的SST正距平的位置南移,阿拉伯海和孟加拉湾被负距平(而不是正距平)所控制.研究表明,东太平洋主要通过大气桥影响潜热释放来影响印度洋SST变化.赤道东太平洋El Ni(n～)o事件的发展,导致印度洋上空风场异常自东而西传播;伴随着风场的变化,潜热发生相应变化,并最终导致SST异常的发生.非洲东海岸受索马里急流控制的海域,其SST的变化不能简单地利用热通量的变化来解释.证据显示,印度洋的增暖是ENSO事件发生的结果而不是其前期信号.     

Decadal Indian Ocean Dipolar Variability and Its Relationship with the Tropical Pacific

A robust decadal Indian Ocean dipolar variability(DIOD) is identified in observations and found to be related to tropical Pacific decadal variability(TPDV).A Pacific Ocean–global atmosphere(POGA) experiment,with fixed radiative forcing,is conducted to evaluate the DIOD variability and its relationship with the TPDV.In this experiment,the sea surface temperature anomalies are restored to observations over the tropical Pacific,but left as interactive with the atmosphere elsewhere.The TPDV-forced DIOD,represented as the ensemble mean of 10 simulations in POGA,accounts for one third of the total variance.The forced DIOD is triggered by anomalous Walker circulation in response to the TPDV and develops following Bjerknes feedback.Thermocline anomalies do not exhibit a propagating signal,indicating an absence of oceanic planetary wave adjustment in the subtropical Indian Ocean.The DIOD–TPDV correlation differs among the 10 simulations,with a low correlation corresponding to a strong internal DIOD independent of the TPDV.The variance of this internal DIOD depends on the background state in the Indian Ocean,modulated by the thermocline depth off Sumatra/Java.     

Seasonal Variation of Dimethylsulfoxide in Rainwater at Amsterdam Island in the Southern Indian Ocean: Implications on the Biogenic Sulfur Cycle

A continuous record of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) in rainwater was performed at Amsterdam island (37°S 77°E) from December 1995 to February 1997. Eighty one rainwater samples were collected. DMSO, methanesulfonic acid (MSA), the major anions, and cations were analyzed. DMSO concentrations ranged from 7.0 to 369 nM, with a distinct seasonal variation. The mean concentrations during the summer and the winter periods were 90 nM and 25.6 nM respectively. The observed DMSO seasonal cycle is in line with the observations of DMS in the atmosphere and MSA in rainwater, measured simultaneously during the reported period. However, the summer to winter ratio of DMSO is significantly lower than that observed for DMS and MSA. The DMSO to MSA ratio and its observed seasonal variability are also presented. The implications on the biogenic sulfur cycle are discussed.     

印度洋海气相互作用对热带夏季大气环流气候态的影响

利用分辨率较高的SINTEX-F(Scale INTeraction EXperiment-FRCGC) 海气耦合模式, 进行多组长时间积分模拟和理想试验, 分析研究热带印度洋海气耦合对夏季大气环流气候态的影响。主要结果有: (1) 热带印度洋海气相互作用使热带东印度洋产生明显的东风变化, 使热带中西太平洋赤道北部产生气旋性切变变化。 (2) 印度洋海气相互作用对大气环流气候态的影响绝大部分由于大气对海气相互作用的响应存在年际变化正负距平不对称性造成, 这种年际变化不对称性包括正偶极子与负偶极子的不对称、 海盆宽度正异常与海盆宽度负异常的不对称。 (3) 年际和季节内两种时间尺度海气相互作用对印度洋关键区大气环流平均态都有影响, 约各占60%、 40%; 季节内尺度海气相互作用对太平洋近赤道区大气环流平均态有重要影响; 年际尺度海气相互作用对太平洋赤道外地区大气环流平均态有重要影响。热带印度洋年际尺度、 季节内尺度海气相互作用对大气环流气候态的影响, 都存在年际变化以及年际变化正负距平不对称性。这两种尺度海气相互作用主要通过年际变化正负距平不对称性而对大气环流平均态产生影响。     

热带印度洋偶极子事件期间印度洋大气的变化——大气流函数场和势函数场的分析

大气环流的变异是热带印度洋偶极子（IOD）事件研究中的一个重要问题。本文从风场旋度分量和散度分量角度出发,利用观测资料和大气环流模式,对IOD事件发生时热带印度洋海区上空的大气环流变化进行了分析,揭示出风场不同分量在IOD事件期间的变化特征。研究结果表明,热带印度洋大气环流系统在IOD事件期间,旋度分量和散度分量在垂直方向上呈现明显的一阶斜压形式,而在水平方向上呈现明显的对称分布特征。对低空（850 hPa）来说,无辐散流函数距平场在IOD事件正位相期间表现为关于赤道对称的一对反气旋式环流;无旋度分量在IOD事件正位相期间的响应表现为东印度洋辐散、西印度洋辐合;大气环流的两种分量场均可以在赤道印度洋地区产生距平意义下的纬向东风,正是这种形式的距平东风使得IOD事件依靠海气系统正反馈机制得以维持和发展。而高空（200 hPa）大气环流形式刚好与850 hPa相反。     

Hydrogen Peroxide at the Bermuda Atlantic Time Series Station. Part 1: Temporal Variability of Atmospheric Hydrogen Peroxide and Its Influence on Seawater Concentrations

Diurnal and seasonal variations in atmospheric hydrogen peroxideconcentrations wereinvestigated during a summer and winter cruise aboard the R.V. `Endeavor' atthe BermudaAtlantic Time Series Station. Rainwater peroxide concentrations in Augustdisplayed dielvariability while no temporal H₂O₂ pattern was evidentin March rain. Averageconcentrations in March were also significantly lower than August whichindicates photochemicalprocesses are involved in controlling hydrogen peroxide concentrations inmarine rainwaterfalling over the open ocean. The range of gas phase hydrogen peroxideconcentrations wasbetween 1 and 6 ppbv and also exhibited a strong diurnal pattern during bothAugust and Marchwith concentration maxima in the early evening. The influence of atmosphericdeposition onsurface seawater hydrogen peroxide levels was also evaluated. Hydrogenperoxide depth profileswere measured on four separate occasions before and after rain events duringthe Augustsampling period. The input of rainfall hydrogen peroxide was observedthroughout the 25 metermixed layer with surface concentrations two fold larger in the morning aftera rain event. Theintegrated increase in hydrogen peroxide after the rain from 0 to 90 meterswas 1,720 molalmost all of which could be accounted for by the peroxide added from rain.The data presentedin this study represent the first detailed, simultaneous measurements ofhydrogen peroxide inmarine air, rain and surface seawater.     

印度洋海气热通量交换研究

基于综合海洋大气资料集(COADS)资料的研究表明,热带印度洋的海气热通量交换具有明显的区域性特征,在部分海域,如冬季热带印度洋的中东部、夏季的热带西印度洋和北印度洋,它主要表现为海洋对大气的强迫.海洋对大气的这种强迫,主要是通过潜热加热实现的.与潜热加热相比,感热加热尽管是一个小量,但感热异常与表层海温的显著相关,较之潜热明显超前.无论冬季还是夏季,热带印度洋都存在大面积海域,其SST变化难以通过海气热通量交换来解释.     

Interannual Variability of Late-spring Circulation and Diabatic Heating over the Tibetan Plateau Associated with Indian Ocean Forcing

The thermal forcing of the Tibetan Plateau(TP) during boreal spring,which involves surface sensible heating,latent heating released by convection and radiation flux heat,is critical for the seasonal and subseasonal variation of the East Asian summer monsoon.Distinct from the situation in March and April when the TP thermal forcing is modulated by the sea surface temperature anomaly(SSTA) in the North Atlantic,the present study shows that it is altered mainly by the SSTA in the Indian Ocean Basin Mode(IOBM) in May,according to in-situ observations over the TP and MERRA reanalysis data.In the positive phase of the IOBM,a local Hadley circulation is enhanced,with its ascending branch over the southwestern Indian Ocean and a descending one over the southeastern TP,leading to suppressed precipitation and weaker latent heat over the eastern TP.Meanwhile,stronger westerly flow and surface sensible heating emerges over much of the TP,along with slight variations in local net radiation flux due to cancellation between its components.The opposite trends occur in the negative phase of the IOBM.Moreover,the main associated physical processes can be validated by a series of sensitivity experiments based on an atmospheric general circulation model,FAMIL.Therefore,rather than influenced by the remote SSTAs of the northern Atlantic in the early spring,the thermal forcing of the TP is altered by the Indian Ocean SSTA in the late spring on an interannual timescale.     

太平洋-印度洋海表温度加热对中高纬低频振荡的调频作用

用数值试验的方法，分别以无热源型、El Nino初期、El Nino成熟期对应的赤道中东太平洋与赤道印度洋海表温度作为外强迫源，应用强迫耗散准地转正压涡度方程的全球谱模式，考虑了摩擦耗散及3波准共振的共同作用，采用非定常、定常加热两种形式积分90d，研究了对中高纬大气低频振荡的调频作用。结果表明：（1）3个行星波之间存在很强的波-波相互作用，且波动振荡呈现准双周和季节内振荡；（2）在El Nino初期和El Nino成熟期，无论是赤道中东太平洋海温还是赤道印度洋海温在逐渐增暖的过程中，大气低频振荡周期都有缩短的趋势。1997年2月-1997年4月，赤道印度洋调节作用强；而在1998年5月，赤道中东太平洋调节作用强；（3）赤道印度洋西区对大气低频振荡的调节作用要强于赤道印度洋东区；Nino3区对大气低频振荡的调节作用要强于Ninol＋2区；（4）太平洋-印度洋海温异常模态在1997年10月为高指数（简称PIMI一型），在1996年9月为低指数（简称PIMI二型），前者对应的东太平洋-西印度洋区对大气的调频作用要大于后者对应的西太平洋一东印度洋区。     

热带印度洋偶极子的季节性位相锁定可能原因

利用1960年1月～1999年12月Hadley气候预测和研究中心的全球海表温度资料和改进的中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体力学数值模拟国家重点实验室的第三代海洋环流模式,以及1949年1月～1999年12月NCEP/NCAR月平均海表面大气距平资料,采用资料合成分析和数值试验相结合的方法,研究了热带印度洋偶极子从发展到成熟的特征。海表温度异常的分析结果表明,正、负热带印度洋偶极子的强度和发生强偶极子事件的次数都在北半球秋季达到最强、最多,与季节循环存在位相锁定。偶极子的数值模拟结果与此分析结果一致,表明海洋表面的大气强迫对激发印度洋偶极子有重要作用。对比试验的结果表明,赤道印度洋上空风应力异常是偶极子形成的主要原因。文中还设计了12个敏感性试验研究在相同大气异常强迫下1～12月大气气候基本态对印度洋偶极子的作用,结果发现大气气候态对偶极子的强度有很大影响,其中9月的大气气候态最有利于印度洋偶极子达到最强。这是由赤道东南印度洋地区东南风和海洋之间的正反馈过程决定的,因此大气基本态是偶极子成熟位相锁定在秋季的一个重要原因。     

赤道印度洋偶极子对重庆夏季降水的影响分析

利用重庆34个气象台站1961—2017年夏季降水量、NCEP/NCAR的再分析月平均高度场资料和海面温度资料，分析发现，上年秋季尤其是11月的赤道（热带）印度洋偶极子（tropical Indian Ocean dipole, TIOD）模态与重庆夏季降水存在正相关关系。通过前期海面温度对大气环流的影响分析，结果表明：上年11月TIOD和夏季500 hPa高度场的相关与重庆夏季降水和高度场的相关一致，显示出从高纬度到低纬度“+、-、+”的相关分布，反映出当上年11月TIOD正位相（负位相）时，次年夏季环流场表现出乌拉尔山阻塞高压明显（不明显）、中纬度30°～37°N低值系统活跃（不活跃），西太平洋副热带高压偏强（弱）、位置偏南（北）的重庆夏季典型的降水偏多环流特征；前期赤道太平洋ENSO暖事件和前期TIOD事件同时发生时，两个事件的作用相互叠加，使得西太平洋副热带高压加强西伸并且位置偏南，造成重庆夏季降水的异常偏多。     

Interannual Variability of Sea Surface Temperature in the Northern Indian Ocean Associated with ENSO and IOD

The Northern Indian Ocean(NIO) sea surface temperature(SST) warming,associated with the El Ni o/Southern Oscillations(ENSO) and the Indian Ocean Dipole(IOD) mode,is investigated using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) monthly data for the period 1979 2010.Statistical analyses are used to identify respective contribution from ENSO and IOD.The results indicate that the first NIO SST warming in September November is associated with an IOD event,while the second NIO SST warming in spring-summer following the mature phase of ENSO is associated with an ENSO event.In the year that IOD co-occurred with ENSO,NIO SST warms twice,rising in the ENSO developing year and decay year.Both shortwave radiation and latent heat flux contribute to the NIO SST variation.The change in shortwave radiation is due to the change in cloudiness.A cloud-SST feedback plays an important role in NIO SST warming.The latent heat flux is related to the change in monsoonal wind.In the first NIO warming,the SST anomaly is mainly due to the change in the latent heat flux.In the second NIO warming,both factors are important.     

印度洋海温异常与南亚高压东西振荡的关系

利用1952~2001年的印度洋海表温度资料、NCEP/NCAR的高度场资料,采用小波分析、交叉谱分析等方法,讨论了印度洋海温偶极子指数与南亚高压东西振荡的关系。结果表明:印度洋偶极子指数与南亚高压存在明显的负相关,且春季印度洋偶极子指数对同年夏季南亚高压的东西振荡有一定指示作用。印度洋偶极子指数与南亚高压东伸指数均存在8 a左右显著时间尺度。两者在1.5~8 a的周期上存在密切联系,在3 a左右的周期上,印度洋偶极子指数变化超前于南亚高压东伸指数,说明印度洋海温异常是影响南亚高压东西振荡的重要因素之一。     

Subsurface influence on SST in the tropical Indian Ocean: structure and interannual variability

Interannual variations of subsurface influence on SST in the Indian Ocean show strong seasonality. The subsurface influence on SST confines to the southern Indian Ocean (SIO) in boreal winter and spring; it is observed on both sides of the equator in boreal summer and fall. Interannual long Rossby waves are at the heart of this influence, and contribute significantly to the coupled climate variability in the tropical Indian Ocean (TIO). Principal forcing mechanism for the generation of these interannual waves in the Indian Ocean and the relative influence of two dominant interannual signals in the tropics, namely El Niño and Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), are also discussed. Two distinct regions dominated by either of the above climate signals are identified. IOD dominates the forcing of the off-equatorial Rossby waves, north of 10°S, and the forcing comes mainly from the anomalous Ekman pumping associated with the IOD. However, after the demise of IOD activity by December, Rossby waves are dominantly forced by ENSO, particularly south of 10°S.It is found that the subsurface feedback in the northern flank of the southern Indian Ocean ridge region (north of 10°S) significantly influences the central east African rainfall in boreal fall. The Indian Ocean coupled process further holds considerable capability of predicting the east African rainfall by one season ahead. Decadal modulation of the subsurface influence is also noticed during the study period. The subsurface influence north of 10°S coherently varies with the IOD, while it varies coherently with the ENSO south of this latitude.     

Annual variation of atmospheric carbonyl sulfide in the marine atmosphere in the Southern Indian Ocean

Measurements of the concentrations of carbonyl sulfide (COS) in the marine atmosphere were made over a period of two years in the southern Indian Ocean (Amsterdam Island, 37°50 S–77°31 E; March 1987–February 1988 and April 1989–February 1990). The mean atmospheric COS concentration for the whole period was 475±48 pptv (n=544). Atmospheric COS concentrations show no significant seasonal variation with a summer to winter ratio of 1.05. Taking into account the observed variability of the atmospheric COS concentration (10%), a value of 1.4 yr is estimated as a lower limit for the atmospheric COS lifetime. A comparison of the COS data at Amsterdam Island with those obtained in the Southern Hemisphere in the past 12 yr does not reveal any significant trend in the tropospheric background COS mixing ratio.     

冬季和春季印度洋海温异常年际变率模态对中国东部夏季降水的可能影响过程

印度洋热力状况是影响全球气候变化和亚洲季风变异的一个重要的因素,但以往研究更多关注热带印度洋海温的变化,对南印度洋中高纬地区海温变化关注不够,由此限制了我们对印度洋的全面认识.本文研究了年际尺度上整个印度洋海温异常主导模态的特征及其对我国东部地区夏季降水的可能影响过程,以期望为气候变异研究及预测提供理论依据.研究结果表明:全印度洋海温异常年际变率的主导模态特征是在南印度洋副热带地区海温异常呈现西南—东北反向变化的偶极子模态,西极子位于马达加斯加以东南洋面,东极子位于澳大利亚以西洋面;同时,热带印度洋海温异常与东极子一致.当西极子为正的海温异常,东极子、热带印度洋为负异常时定义为正的印度洋海温异     

SVD揭示的印度洋海气相互作用模态及其与中国降水的联系

利用1958-1999年6-8月平均的GISST(Global Indian Sea Surface Temperature)海表温度资料和同期850 hPa水平风场等NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,作了向量奇异值分解,并对各个模态作了相应分析,发现前两个模态可以很好地表示出印度洋海气耦合的主要部分:第1模态是印度洋海温对ENSO信号的滞后响应;第2模态反映了存在于印度洋的海-气相互作用现象,是ENSO和IOD(Indian Ocean Dipole,印度洋偶极子)的混合模态.讨论了前两个模态与中国夏季降水等变化的联系,发现印度洋海温单极模态与我国华南夏季降水存在负相关,与长江流域及其以北地区存在正相关;印度洋偶极型海温与我国降水的关系不典型.