WRF微物理方案对四川一次强降水模拟的影响

云物理过程是中尺度数值模式中最重要的非绝热加热物理过程之一,成云降雨过程发生以后通过感热、潜热和动量输送等反馈作用影响大尺度环流,并在决定大气温度、湿度场的垂直结构中起着关键作用,也是人们最为关心的降水预报的关键所在.因此在中尺度数值天气预报模式当中,更加准确的描述云物理过程将能够很大程度上提高模式预报降水能力.本文利用WRF模式,对2010年7月14 ～ 18日四川一次强降水过程进行了3组数值模拟实验,每组实验采用了不同的微物理参数化方案.方案的选取上主要采用了WRF模式3.0版本后加入的几种新方案,包括(1)WDM6方案(2)New Thompson方案(3)SBU-YLIN方案,在其他参数设置均相同的情况下,首先详细分析了在整个降水过程的各个阶段,3种方案下模式模拟结果与实况的差异,以及3种方案结果之间的差异.认为在降水初期,WDM6方案的模拟结果对比实况来看盆地东部降水中心偏南,而New Thompson方案和SBU-YLin方案模拟的雅安地区降水中心强度和范围都过大,但对于盆地东部的降水中心模拟较好,New Thompson方案对广元地区的降水模拟较实况偏弱.总体看来,New Thompson方案和SBU-YLin效果相当,WDM6略差.在大范围降水产生的时期,3种方案模拟的效果与实况都非常接近,只是各方案对乐山宜宾一线雨带的模拟都有不同程度的加强,使得这一线成了整个区域的最强的中心,其中SBU-YLin方案加强最大,New Thompson方案次之,而实际过程中这一时期最强中心还是在川东北一带.WDM6方案模拟降水强度与实况最为接近,但中心偏东.其中7月16日18时～17日06时是各方案模拟效果最好的一个时段.3种方案给出的的模拟结果相差并不大,较难得出哪种方案的结果最好的结论,但可以初步看出,对于本次降水量级的模拟来讲,WDM6方案模拟降水的量级较好,较少出现模拟过强的现象,而SBU-YLin方案通常模拟的降水中心强度都要大过实际;从降水落区上来看,SBU-YLin方案的表现较好,WDM6方案则有一定偏差.在这两方面New Thompson方案都介于以上两方案之间.最后初步分析了各方案模拟所得的水相参量,主要包括水汽、云水、云冰、雨、雪和霰粒子的混合比,认为造成各方案之间降水差异的原因,主要是各方案处理云水粒子的差别造成.     

基于WRF模式的清江流域降雨-径流模拟研究

基于WRF模式,采用4层嵌套方案,选取3种积云参数化方案和7种微物理方案组成21种组合,对清江流域2016—2018年6—10月6次典型降雨事件进行数值预报,结合CMORPH卫星-地面自动站-雷达三源融合降水产品,采用TS评分和FSS评分,分析不同分辨率和云微物理方案的降雨预报效果;基于较优组合方案的WRF模式与WRF-Hydro水文模式耦合进行径流模拟,分析WRF模式在水文模拟中的应用效果。结果表明:3 km和1 km分辨率对降雨中心位置及强度预报的差别不大,对降雨落区都有较好的预报能力;在积云参数化方案中,KF方案和BMJ方案的降雨预报效果优于GF方案;在微物理方案中,WSM3、WSM5、WSM6、Thompson方案的预报结果与融合数据有较好的一致性;基于较优组合方案BMJ_WSM3,将WRF模式与WRF-Hydro模式耦合,耦合模式能较好地模拟洪水过程,径流模拟相关系数都在0.67以上,且NSE最高可达0.79。      

Uncertainties in simulating regional climate of Southern Africa: sensitivity to physical parameterizations using WRF

This study aims at quantifying seasonal biases of regional climate model outputs during southern African summer, against a dense in situ measurement network (daily rain-gauge and surface air temperature records, and 12?h UTC radiosondes), and uncertainties associated with some physical parameterizations. Using the non-hydrostatic Advanced Research Weather Forecast (WRF) laterally forced by ERA40 reanalysis, twenty-seven experiments configured with three schemes of cumulus (CU), planetary boundary layer (PBL) and microphysics (MP), are performed at 35?km horizontal resolution during the core of a summer rainy season (December 1993 to February 1994 season) representative of the South African rainfall climatology. WRF simulates accurately seasonal large-scale rainfall patterns, as well as seasonal gradients of South African rainfall and 2-m temperature, and seasonal vertical profiles of the air temperature and humidity. However seasonal biases fluctuate strongly from an experiment to another, denoting considerable uncertainties generated by the physical package. Rainfall amounts are the most sensitive parameter to the tested schemes. Their geography, intensity, and intraseasonal characteristics are predominantly sensitive to CU schemes, and much less to PBL and MP schemes. Some CU-PBL combinations produce additive effects, which can dramatically either reduce or increase biases. Satisfactory configurations are found for South African climate, which would not have been possible without testing numerous physical parameterizations.     

北京一次短时局地大暴雨过程的特征及对云物理方案的敏感性数值模拟试验

云物理过程是云和降水形成的重要环节。本文针对2011年6月23日发生在北京地区的一次大暴雨过程进行了云降水与天气特征分析,并开展了WRF模式中10种不同云微物理方案对此次暴雨强度、落区和发生时间的敏感性数值模拟试验。研究结果表明,此次大暴雨是由多单体组织、合并形成深厚的中尺度对流系统,并具有明显的短时局地特征和有利的高低空、高低纬度大中尺度天气环流形势及强烈的水汽输送条件。暴雨强度、落区和发生时间的数值模拟结果对云物理方案非常敏感。不同云物理方案对累积降水量≥50 mm和≥100 mm的暴雨模拟的ETS评分显示,只有Thompson方案对此暴雨量级的评分均为正,其他方案的ETS评分均不理想,特别是对累积降水量≥100 mm的大暴雨模拟。在小时暴雨强度和发生时间方面,Thompson方案模拟效果也较好,其次是Lin方案和WSM6方案;对区域累积最大降水量和落区的模拟方面,Thompson方案和Morrison方案模拟的最大累积降水量更接近观测值,但在落区方面,一些具有完整云物理过程的单参数方案（Lin方案、WSM6方案）模拟效果较好,但模拟的最大降水量偏小。针对暖雨的双参数方案WDM6对区域平均降水模拟较好,但对暴雨极端降水模拟较差。对造成差异的原因分析表明,不同云物理方案的差异主要体现在雪和霰的参数化方面,由于采用的粒子谱分布、密度和末速度不同,导致云中粒子间的碰并和形成过程不同,大部分云物理方案模拟的霰含量高,雪含量低。这种云微物理过程的差异会导致云动力过程的反馈作用出现明显不同,但这种反馈作用的差异主要体现在降水粒子对上升气流的拖曳作用不同。尽管云中相变潜热过程对云动力过程具有很重要的影响,但不同云物理方案在相变潜热过程和温度廓线分布方面造成的差异并不明显。因此,云物理方案中考虑合理的粒子谱分布、形态和密度变化,有利于提高暴雨的模拟效果。     

一次梅雨锋暴雨过程数值模拟的云微物理参数化敏感性研究

梅雨锋暴雨中的云微物理过程对降水的演变有着重要影响。本文通过WRF模式（3.4.1版本）,针对2018年6月29～30日一次梅雨锋背景下的暴雨过程进行数值模拟,分别采用了Morrison、Thompson和MY云微物理参数化方案进行对比分析,结果发现:（1）三个方案模拟的背景场在天气尺度上,都与ERA5再分析资料一致,能够模拟出有利于强降水发生的环流场。云微物理过程对梅雨期暴雨的局地环流有着显著影响,不同方案存在明显差异,本次过程中,Thompson方案模拟出更强的局地环流系统变率和上升气流。三个方案的模拟降水均有所夸大,小时降水率始终大于观测值。冰相粒子融化或雨滴搜集云滴的高估可能是造成降水模拟值偏强的重要原因之一,总体来看,Morrison方案的模拟效果相对最优。（2）冰相粒子融化、雨滴搜集云滴是雨滴增长的关键源项,蒸发则是其最重要的汇项。总的来说,雨滴对云滴的搜集量大于冰相粒子融化。但上述过程在不同方案中存在空间上的差异,从而使得模拟降水的空间分布存在差异。（3）Thompson方案中,冰相粒子融化量最大,雨滴蒸发项显著大于其它两个方案,在底层表现得最为明显。同时,该方案水汽凝结效应最强,使得雨滴搜集更多云滴。该方案模拟的雨滴最多,降水最强。该方案中凝华的主要产物为雪,且其在与过冷水碰并增长过程中占主导地位,故模拟的雪最多。（4）Morrison方案中,水汽主要凝华为雪和少量霰（冰晶忽略不计）;Thompson方案中水汽基本凝华为雪,其它冰相粒子极少;MY方案中,水汽主要凝华为雪和冰晶,冰晶总量略少于雪,但显著大于其它方案。（5）云滴在凇附过程中的总体贡献大于雨滴。Morrison和MY方案中,霰粒子搜集云滴增长的量均最大。Morrison方案中,其它凇附过程不同程度发挥作用,而MY方案中,其它凇附过程几乎可忽略不计。并且,霰粒子搜集云滴的增长量大于凝华过程产生的雪粒子总量。贝吉龙及凇附效应的差异,是不同方案中冰相粒子分布差异的关键原因之一。     

WRF模式多种边界层参数化方案对四川盆地不同量级降水影响的数值试验

利用中尺度模式WRF三种边界层参数化方案(MYJ、YSU和ACM2),对2012年四川盆地夏季连续40天逐日降水量进行数值试验,并检验评估了不同边界层参数化方案下模式对分级降水量和边界层结构的模拟能力,分析了各参数化方案对降水量模拟差异的可能原因。结果表明:三种边界层参数化方案对较小量级(小雨和中雨)降水量的模拟,24 h时效优于48 h,ACM2方案效果较好;对较大量级(大雨和暴雨)降水的模拟,48 h时效优于24 h,YSU方案模拟效果较好。对比分析温江站加密探空观测与模式模拟的大气边界层结构表明,ACM2方案对小量级降水时边界层结构的模拟较为准确,而YSU方案更适合于温江站大量级降水时边界层结构的模拟。不同边界层参数化方案对各量级降水量模拟差异的可能原因是边界层湍流混合强度的不同,MYJ方案湍流混合作用较弱,导致底层大量水汽积聚,不稳定性强,容易产生虚假降水,因此对各量级降水模拟能力均有限;YSU方案具有强烈的垂直混合强度,有利于局地水汽的向上输送,更易达到大量级降水发生发展的条件,适用于盆地较大量级降水的模拟;ACM2方案在保证足够湍流混合强度的同时,在较稳定条件下会关闭非局地输送,不致于产生过强降水,适合盆地较小量级降水的数值模拟     

WRF模式不同微物理过程对东北降水相态预报的影响

为了研究不同微物理过程对中尺度模式降水相态预报的影响,利用中尺度模式WRF（V3.1）和NCEP再分析资料,采用WSM 6方案、Goddard方案和New Thompson方案等3种不同微物理过程参数化方案,对2006-2008年东北地区存在降水相变的11次降水过程进行了敏感性试验。通过对降水和云微物理特征影响的分析,了解不同方案间的预报差异。结果表明：不同微物理方案对降水落区和强度预报影响不明显,而降水相态对微物理参数化方案较为敏感,主要表现在对雨区和雨夹雪区预报影响显著。从总体预报效果来看Goddard方案表现较好。选用不同微物理参数化方案模拟的底层大气云微物理特征存在较大的差别,正是这种差别直接导致了降水相态预报间的差异。     

Impact of physical parameterizations on simulation of the Caspian Sea lake-effect snow

The southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea often experiences heavy snowfall during winter season due to the lake effect. The accurate estimation of snowfall in this region is still a challenge for weather forecasters. This study attempts to investigate the simulation of lake-effect snow (LES) event occurring along the southwest coastline of the Caspian Sea from 31 January to 4 February 2014 using Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. The study evaluates the sensitivity of four microphysics (WSM6, Goddard, Morrison, and Thompson) schemes and two planetary boundary layer (PBL) schemes (the Yonsei University (YSU) and the Mellor-Yamada-Janjic (MYJ)), yielding eight distinct combinations. The results indicated that all the simulations overestimated the precipitation. However, the best configurations for estimation of precipitation and snow in terms of their spatiotemporal variation were the Morrison-MYJ and the Goddard-MYJ, respectively. Analyses of the vertical profiles of hydrometeor species showed that the combination of Goddard and MYJ schemes created more snow and graupel than the other configurations. Although the combination of WSM-MYJ schemes revealed the least bias, it was not appropriate for the prediction of snow. A comparison of the two boundary layer schemes showed that the MYJ scheme simulated better intensity and distribution of precipitation than the YSU scheme compared to observations. Also, the maximum radar reflectivity of the model output was useful for identifying the location of maximum precipitation.     

WRF耦合4个陆面过程对“6.19”暴雨过程的模拟研

利用WRF模式与4个陆面过程的耦合,对2010年6月19—20日的暴雨过程进行了数值模拟,并分析陆面过程对暴雨强度和范围的敏感性。结果显示：WRF耦合4个陆面过程模拟的雨带和实况分布一致,均为东西向的雨带形状,且均预报出与实况资料相似的强降水中心。在无陆面方案情况下,强降水中心的位置、范围、强度等都发生明显变化。另外地表径流预报量和降水趋势表现一致,由于土壤含水量趋于饱和,多余的降水分配给地表径流,这种剧增的地表径流也是洪水暴涨、水位上升的重要原因。在较湿的土壤状况下,由于净辐射增长,有利于产生厚度更小的边界层高度以及更大的地表向上潜热通量,这也是导致本次降水过程异常增幅的一个重要原因。     

Effect of Different Microphysical Parameterizations on the Simulations of a South China Heavy Rainfall

A heavy rainfall event in south China was simulated by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model with three microphysics schemes, including the Morrison scheme, Thompson scheme, and Milbrandt and Yau scheme (MY), which aim to evaluate the capability to reproduce the precipitation and radar echo reflectivity features, and to evaluate evaluate their differences in microphysics and the associated thermodynamical and dynamical feedback. Results show that all simulations reproduce the main features crucial for rainfall formation. Compared with the observation, the MY scheme performed better than the other two schemes in terms of intensity and spatial distribution of rainfall. Due to abundant water vapor, the accretion of cloud droplets by raindrops was the dominant process in the growth of raindrops while the contribution of melting was a secondary effect. Riming processes, in which frozen hydrometeors collect cloud droplets mainly, contributed more to the growth of frozen hydrometeors than the Bergeron process. Extremely abundant snow and ice were produced in the Thompson and MY schemes respectively by a deposition process. The MY scheme has the highest condensation and evaporation, but the lowest deposition. As a result, in the MY scheme, the enhanced vertical gradient of condensation heating and evaporation cooling at low levels produces strong positive and weak negative potential vorticity in Guangdong, and may favor the formation of the enhanced rainfall center over there.     

不同的边界层参数化方案对江淮一次暴雨过程数值试验研究

利用WRF模式分别耦合YSU、MYJ、ACM2和MRF边界层参数化方案对长江中下游地区2013年7月的一次暴雨个例进行模拟实验。为了检验边界层参数化方案的重要性,研究使用无边界层方案(NOPBL)的WRF模式对这次暴雨进行了模拟。通过与实测数据进行对比和分析,本文检验了这五种不同的实验设计对降水落区、总量、基本气象要素的模拟能力。综合模拟结果表明,不同的边界层参数化方案模拟的结果不同。不论是否使用边界层参数化方案,均能模拟出雨带的基本走向,但不同的方案对降水中心强度及位置的模拟与实况相比有差异。NOPBL产生了最大的偏差,ACM2和MRF次之,MYJ的方案对于小雨与大雨的模拟最优,而YSU对不同强度暴雨模拟的正确率都较高。通过物理量分析对比,MYJ方案较优的原因是:1)风场检测,MYJ方案的模拟结果更接近观测值;2)850 hPa水汽通量散度检测,MYJ方案能够模拟两支水汽输送通道。一支以偏西南风为主,在急流出口区有较强的南风风速辐合,使得从西南方向来的水汽向暴雨区辐合;另一支将偏东水汽向西部输送,保证暴雨区局部辐合。3)垂直速度检测,MYJ,YSU方案模拟的垂直运动中心与降水落区相近,但YSU模拟上升速度偏大,相对而言MYJ方案更合理。     

单多普勒天气雷达反演风场高原低纬区域同化应用

为了改善低纬高原地区天气预报水平,利用WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting)模式及其变分同化系统进行雷达VAD(Velocity Azimuth Display)反演风场资料同化试验。通过设计不同的试验方案,对2009年6月30日00:00至7月1日00:00发生在云南的一次强降水过程进行数值模拟和对比分析,结果表明:同化VAD反演风场资料后对区域模式的风矢量初始场有明显影响。同化系统能把雷达反演风场信息有效地引入模式初始场,改善强降水区域的水汽输送和风场辐合强度;同化VAD反演风场资料后对区域模式累计降水预报有一定改进作用。从长时间累计降水量定量检验结果看,具体表现为25mm以上量级的降水准确率明显提高、漏报率下降,预报偏差更趋合理。不同的同化试验方案之间的模拟结果差异较大。同化频率越高、同化持续时间越长,对区域模式初始场和预报场的影响越明显。但同化持续时间不宜过长,否则可能导致系统移速过快、降水强度偏大、空报率增加等异常。     

Development of a Single-Column Model in RegCM4 and Its Preliminary Application for Evaluating PBL Schemes in Simulating the Dry Convection Boundary Layer

A single-column model (SCM) is developed in the regional climate model RegCM4. The evolution of a dry convection boundary layer (DCBL) is used to evaluate this SCM. Moreover, four planetary boundary layer (PBL) schemes, namely the Holtslag-Boville scheme (HB), Yonsei University scheme (YSU), and two University of Washington schemes (UW01, Grenier-Bretherton-McCaa scheme and UW09, Bretherton-Park scheme), are compared by using the SCM approach. A large-eddy simulation (LES) of the DCBL is performed as a benchmark to examine how well a PBL parameterization scheme reproduces the LES results, and several diagnostic outputs are compared to evaluate the schemes. The results show that the SCM is proper constructed. In general, with the DCBL case, the YSU scheme performs best for reproducing the LES results, which include well-mixed features and vertical sensible heat fluxes; the simulated wind speed, turbulent kinetic energy, entrainment flux, and height of the entrainment zone are all underestimated in the UW09; the UW01 has all those biases of the UW09 but larger, and the simulated potential temperature is not well mixed; the HB is the least skillful scheme, by which the PBL height, entrainment flux, height of the entrainment zone, and the vertical gradients within the mixed layer are all overestimated, and a inversion layer near the top of the surface layer is wrongly simulated.Although more cases and further testing are required, these simulations show encouraging results towards the use of this SCM framework for evaluating the simulated physical processes by the RegCM4.     

WRF模式边界层参数化方案对川渝盆地西南涡降水模拟的影响

应用WRF v4.0模式五种边界层参数化方案（YSU、MYJ、MYNN2、ACM2和SH）,对2016 年汛期（5～9月）在川渝盆地东部造成暴雨的所有西南涡过程进行了数值模拟,检验评估了它们对各量级降水的预报能力,并基于加密的L波段秒级探空资料对比分析了模拟与实况边界层结构的差异,结合各方案对湍流运动的算法特点探讨了其差异的原因,最后对ACM2方案进行了湍流强度调整,由此改善其对于川渝盆地边界层与西南涡降水的模拟能力。结果表明:ACM2和YSU方案TS评分表现较好,相对其它方案ACM2空报较少,这种可以根据周围环境的稳定性切换局地或非局地算法的方案更适合于盆地西南涡降水模拟,但边界层方案对西南涡降水的空报都较普遍,尤以大量级降水更明显;精细的探空资料进一步表明,所有方案模拟的白天边界层高度都偏高,湍流混合强度都偏强。通过参数调整而降低混合强度的ACM2方案,模拟的边界层温湿结构则更符合实际观测,其边界层下部温度更低、湿度更高,减少了大量级降水的空报,使盆地西南涡降水模拟有一定改善;边界层参数化方案对西南涡模拟的差别主要体现为不同的西南涡位置与降水强度,但归根到底都源于方案的局地或非局地特性、不同的混合强度这两方面原因。因此,根据不同特定区域下垫面环境与气候状况合理选择方案的特性和混合强度是准确模拟边界层结构及其降水过程的关键。     

基于不同微物理过程的广西沿海南风型暖区暴雨的数值模拟研究

基于WRFV3.6.1,利用其8个云微物理参数化方案对2010—2016年华南汛期（4—9月）的6个南风型暖区暴雨个例进行数值模拟与多方案集成试验,并采用基于对象的诊断评估方法（MODE）对模拟结果进行评估。结果发现对于大多数个例,WRF模式都能较好地模拟出暖区暴雨的降水带,对暖区降水带模拟最好的参数化方案是WSM6方案,其次是Lin方案;模拟效果较差的参数化方案为CAM5.1与NSSL 2-mon方案。选取模拟结果较好的个例进行诊断分析,发现不同参数化方案得到的动力学特征以及云微物理特征相关变量存在较大差异,导致模拟降水的差异。在单方案模拟的基础上,开展多方案集成试验,发现多方案集成方法能够有效降低模式模拟的不确定性,产生更稳定的模拟结果。     

不同边界层和陆面过程参数化方案对比分析

利用WRF模式选用不同的边界层参数化方案 (YSU、MRF) 结合三种陆面过程方案 (RUC、SLAB、Noah) , 模拟了2011年5月1~3日的四川东部暴雨过程, 对不同参数化方案结合不同陆面过程结果进行对比试验基础上发现, 模式对24h降水落区及强度有较强预报能力, 但对单站小时降水分布的预报能力还需改进;不同边界层方案与陆面过程的对比试验说明降水对于边界层物理过程有一定敏感性, 各试验的差异主要体现在对暴雨中心雨强以及降水峰值强度和峰值出现时段的预报上;WRF模式基本上能够模拟出边界层要素日变化特征。      

边界层参数化方案对“莫兰蒂”台风（1614）登陆阶段影响的数值模拟研究

利用中尺度数值模式WRF v3.8中的YSU、MYJ、QNSE、ACM2、UW、GBM、Boulac七种不同边界层参数化方案,采用高分辨率（1.33 km）数值试验的方法研究了不同边界层方案对模拟台风“莫兰蒂”（1614）登陆减弱阶段的移动路径、强度、结构、降水量、近地层有关物理量场分布等方面的影响,结果表明:（1）“莫兰蒂”台风登陆减弱阶段,不同边界层方案对台风路径、强度、降水量模拟影响显著,24 h内模拟台风路径、最低气压、最大风速及24 h累积降水量极值的最大差异分别达80 km、11 hPa、27 m s?1及241 mm;（2）Boulac方案模拟台风路径与实况最为接近,GBM、YSU和MYJ方案分别次之,ACM2和UW方案再次之,而QNSE方案最差;UW和QNSE方案模拟的最低气压以及MYJ和QNSE方案模拟的最大风速与观测最为接近;不同边界层方案均模拟出台风登陆阶段最低气压逐渐升高以及其升高速率在台风登陆后大于登陆前的特征,这与实况一致,但台风登陆前各方案模拟最低气压升高速度均大于实况,而台风登陆后却又不及实况;（3）Boulac方案模拟的24 h降水分布、强降水落区、结构、强度和各量级降水TS评分均最优,MYJ方案次之;而QNSE、UW和ACM2方案雨带向西北方向推进过快,各量级降水TS评分均较差;（4）综合台风路径、强度和降水模拟,Boulac和MYJ方案相对最优,其中Boulac方案在台风路径和降水模拟上更优,而MYJ方案在台风强度模拟上更优;YSU和GBM方案次之,而QNSE、UW和ACM2方案相对较差;（5）不同边界层方案计算的近地层潜热通量、感热通量显著不同,进而影响台风路径、强度、降水量模拟存在显著差异。比较而言,QNSE方案潜热通量相对异常偏高,MYJ和Boulac方案量值适中,其余方案相对偏低;QNSE方案感热通量相对略偏高,MYJ方案适中,其他方案则相对显著偏低;（6）不同边界层方案模拟降水区边界层热、动力结构显著不同,其中Boulac方案具有较明显优势,尤其是对日间边界层结构的模拟。     

Applying the WRF Double-Moment Six-Class Microphysics Scheme in the GRAPES_Meso Model: A Case Study

This study incorporated the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model double-moment 6-class (WDM6) microphysics scheme into the mesoscale version of the Global/Regional Assimilation and PrEdiction System (GRAPES_Meso). A rainfall event that occurred during 3–5 June 2015 around Beijing was simulated by using the WDM6, the WRF single-moment 6-class scheme (WSM6), and the NCEP 5-class scheme, respectively. The results show that both the distribution and magnitude of the rainfall simulated with WDM6 were more consistent with the observation. Compared with WDM6, WSM6 simulated larger cloud liquid water content, which provided more water vapor for graupel growth, leading to increased precipitation in the cold-rain processes. For areas with the warmrain processes, the sensitivity experiments using WDM6 showed that an increase in cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) number concentration led to enhanced CCN activation ratio and larger cloud droplet number concentration (N_c) but decreased cloud droplet effective diameter. The formation of more small-size cloud droplets resulted in a decrease in raindrop number concentration (N_r), inhibiting the warm-rain processes, thus gradually decreasing the amount of precipitation. For areas mainly with the cold-rain processes, the overall amount of precipitation increased; however, it gradually decreased when the CCN number concentration reached a certain magnitude. Hence, the effect of CCN number concentration on precipitation exhibits significant differences in different rainfall areas of the same precipitation event.     

Sensitivity evaluation of the different physical parameterizations schemes in regional climate model RegCM4.5 for simulation of air temperature and precipitation over North and West of Iran

In this research the dynamic downscaling method by Regional Climate Model (RegCM4.5) was used to assess the performance and sensitivity of seasonal simulated North and West of Iran (NI&WI) climate factors to different convection schemes, and transforms the large-scale simulated climate variables into land surface states over the North of Iran (NI) and West of Iran (WI). A 30-year (1986–2015) numerical integration simulation of climate over NI&WI was conducted using the regional climate model RegCM4.5 nested in one-way ERA-Interim reanalysis data. The Grell, Kuo and MIT-Emanuel cumulus convection with Holtslag and University of Washington (UW) planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameterization schemes were applied in the running of RegCM4.5 to test their capability in simulating precipitation and temperature in winter-spring (January–April) over NI and WI. The results demonstrated that the RegCM4.5 model has a good potential for simulating the variables and trend of surface temperature over the NI and WI region. Magnitude of the model bias for land surface temperature over different regions of Iran varies by convection parameterization schemes. In most cases, the root mean square error between post-processed simulated seasonal average temperature and observation value was less than 1 °C, but there is a systematic “cold bias”. In general, with respect to land surface temperature simulations, a better performance is obtained when using post-processing model’s data with Holtslag PBL-Grell and Holtslag PBL-Kuo configuration schemes, compared to the other simulations, over the NI&WI region. Also, the UW PBL convection schemes show a relatively excellent spatial correlations and normalized standard deviations closer to 1 for thirty-year seasonal land surface temperature anomalies over the entire NI&WI region. However, the simulation accuracy of model for precipitation is not as optimal as for temperature. The dominant feature in model simulations is a dry bias with the largest average value (∼1.04 mm/day) over NI region, while the lowest mean bias precipitation (∼−0.47 mm/day), mainly located in WI region. In the comparison of six configuration convection schemes, the Emanuel scheme has been proven to be the most accurate for simulating winter-spring seasonal mean precipitation over NI&WI region. The accuracy of the scheme also showed great difference in simulated station interpolation of precipitation, which urges the improvement for the simulation capability of spatial distribution of precipitation. In general, for seasonal variation of precipitation, the Emanuel convection with two (Holtslag, UW) PBL configuration schemes outperforms with a good correlation score between 0.7−0.8 and normalized standard deviations closer to 1.     

A note on surface layer parameterizations in the weather research and forecast model

Two surface layer parameterization schemes along with five planetary boundary layer (PBL) schemes in the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) are analyzed in order to evaluate the performance of the WRF model in simulating the surface variables and turbulent fluxes over an Indian sub-continent region. These surface layer schemes are based on the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University—National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model (MM5) parameterization; (a) Old MM5 scheme having Businger-Dyer similarity functions and (b) revised MM5 scheme utilizing the functions that are valid for full ranges of atmospheric stabilities. The study suggests that each PBL scheme can reproduce the diurnal variation of 2 m temperature, momentum flux and sensible heat flux irrespective of the surface layer scheme used for the simulations. However, a comparison of model-simulated values of surface variables and turbulent fluxes with observed values suggests that each PBL scheme is found to systematically over-estimate the nocturnal 2 m temperature and 10 m wind speed with both the revised and old schemes during stable conditions.