Does vertical seismic force play an important role for the failure mechanism of rock avalanches? A case study of rock avalanches triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake of May 12, 2008, Sichuan,China

The Wenchuan earthquake triggered 15,000 rock avalanches, rockfalls and debris flows, causing a large number of causalities and widespread damage. Similar to many rock avalanches, field investigations showed that tensile failure often occurred at the back edge. Some soil and rock masses were moved so violently that material became airborne. The investigation indicates that this phenomenon was due to the effect of a large vertical seismic motion that occurred in the meizoseismal area during the earthquake. This paper analyses the effect of vertical earthquake force on the failure mechanism of a large rock avalanche using the Donghekou rock avalanche as an example. This deadly avalanche, which killed 780 people, initiated at an altitude of 1,300 m and had a total run-out distance of 2,400 m. The slide mass is mainly composed of Sinian limestone and dolomite limestone, together with Cambrian slate and phyllite. Static and dynamic stability analysis on the Donghekou rock avalanche has been performed using FLAC finite difference method software, under the actual seismic wave conditions as recorded on May 12, 2008. The results show that the combined horizontal and vertical peak acceleration caused a higher reduction in slope stability factor than horizontal peak acceleration alone. In addition, a larger area of tensile failure at the back edge of the avalanche was generated when horizontal and vertical peak acceleration were combined than when only horizontal acceleration was considered. The force of the large vertical component of acceleration was the main reason rock and soil masses became airborne during the earthquake.     

陡倾煤层开采条件下上覆山体变形破坏物理模型试验研究

大型岩质滑坡是中国西南岩溶矿区的主要地质灾害类型,其破坏和成灾过程具有复合性。以我国重庆武隆鸡冠岭滑坡为例,通过离心物理模型试验研究了地下开采条件下陡倾灰岩斜坡的变形失稳机制。试验时随着煤层模型板被拔出,上覆岩层在拟重力作用下开始出现位移与层间错动,当煤层模型被拔出150 mm时,模型山体发生显著破坏。试验结果表明:陡倾灰岩斜坡在长期重力作用下,会出现弯曲倾倒的变形,随着地下煤层逐渐采空,上覆陡倾层状岩体失去支撑,岩层层面分离并产生拉张裂缝,岩体变形加剧发生倾倒破坏,并对煤层下部的稳定岩体形成挤压,下伏稳定岩体发生剪切破坏,最终导致鸡冠岭以倾倒-滑移的复合模式整体失稳。这一研究对中国西南山区大型岩质滑坡的早期识别与失稳机制分析具有指导意义。      

水平地震力作用下顺倾结构面对岩质边坡破坏影响分析

基于断裂理论和波动理论对水平地震力作用下对岩质边坡顺倾结构面的破坏建立了数学模型,在不考虑结构面填充物的影响下分析了结构面的长度、埋深及倾角在水平地震动力作用下对边坡破坏的影响。分析结果表明,当结构面埋深与长度h/L相差不大时,对于一定的水平地震加速度a,结构面埋深和长度越大,边坡在地震作用下越容易破坏;当结构面埋深和长度一定时,边坡破坏随着水平地震加速度的增大而增强。另外,结构面的倾角在增大过程中,岩体所受的拉应力逐渐增大,剪应力则表现为先增大,后减小。这是由于当结构面的埋深与长度一定时,随着倾角的增大,地震作用下边坡是从剪切破坏逐渐向拉张破坏过渡。该模型对地震作用时边坡稳定性分析具有一定的参考意义。     

Study of the Engineering Geological Problems of the Havasan Dam,with Emphasis on Clay-Filled Joints in the Right Abutment

Havasan dam site is located in northwest of Iran. The planned concrete dam is to be built on Cretaceous limestone. Faulted and fractured limestone is exposed at the dam abutments and in the reservoir area. Rock mass properties including the deformation modulus and uniaxial compressive strength were calculated using different rock mass classification systems (RMR, Q, GSI and DMR). Laboratory tests indicate that joint filling materials contain clay with low to high plasticity (CL to CH) and low to medium potential swelling pressures. X-ray diffraction analysis confirms that the reason for potential swelling of joint fillings is the existence of clay minerals (such as illite and montmorillonite). The study results about the shear strength of clay-filled joints show that under JRC–JCS condition (laboratory scale), JRC _n –JCS _n (large scale) and normal stress equal to 0.25–4 MPa, the range of shear strength of clay-filled joints will be equal to 0.2–2.17 and 0.14–1.72 MPa. In some areas dissolution along the joints results in high permeability, especially in the right abutment. Three dominant joint sets occur in the exploration galleries which have been excavated in the right abutment. The maximum aperture of these joints varies from 7 to 9 cm, and the joints are typically filled with clay. Preliminary analysis shows that the presence of open joints which will cause seepage of water, combined with the impact of the clay-filled joints and forces acting on the slopes, could lead to slope failures and rock falls. In addition, the assessment of slope stability results in abutments using limited equilibrium method and Swedge software under dynamic and static conditions shows that two wedges formed on the slopes of the abutment by the natural joints are potentially unstable. The rock wedge on the left abutment is smaller but presents higher sliding potential. In addition, there is no probability of planar failure due to the geological condition of the dam abutments. This paper summarizes the site investigation and subsequent analysis, which resulted in a recommendation not to construct this site. We offer some potential mitigation plans to consider if a dam were to be built at this site.     

The shear strength of clay-filled bedding planes in limestones - back-analysis of a slope failure in a phosphate mine, Israel

The failure of a slope in a phosphate mine by shear-sliding along a clay-filled bedding plane in limestone, and by separation across a tension crack at the back, is back-analysed. The failure cannot be explained using laboratory measured values of the shear strength parameters. In order to simulate field conditions better two physical models of the bedding plane were prepared for testing under triaxial compression. Cylindrical cores with an inclined saw-cut discontinuity were filled with remoulded montmorillonite. It is shown that failure in the models initiates along the contacts between the clay infilling and the limestone boundaries, and not through the clay itself, as would be intuitively expected. Furthermore, it is argued that in the analysis of rock slope stability in general, and particularly in the case of clay-filled discontinuities, the influence of paleo-overburden stress on frictional resistance must be resolved before the appropriate constitutive law can be established for analysis.     

Seismic reliability analysis of earth slopes under short term stability conditions

Different models were developed for evaluating the probabilistic three-dimensional (3-D) stability analysis of earth slopes and embankments under earthquake loading. The 3-D slope stability model assumed is that of a simple cylindrical failure surface. The probabilistic models evaluate the probability of failure under seismic loading considering the randomness of earthquake occurrence, and earthquake induced acceleration and uncertainties stemming from the discrepancies between laboratory-measured and in-situ values of shear strength parameters. The models also takes into consideration the spatial variabilities and correlations of soil properties. The probabilistic analysis and design approach is capable of obtaining the 2-D and 3-D static and dynamic safety factors, the probability of slope failure, the earthquake induced acceleration coefficient, the yield acceleration coefficient, the earthquake induced displacement, and the probability of allowable displacement exceedance taking into account the local site effect. The approach is applied to a well known landslide case: Congress Street Landslide in Chicago. A sensitivity analysis was conducted on the different parameters involved in the models by applying those models to the Congress Street landslide considering different levels of seismic hazard. Also, a sensitivity analysis was carried out to study the sensitivity of computed results to input parameters of undrained shear strength, and corrective factors. A comparison was made between the different models of failure. The parametric study revealed that the hypocentral distance and earthquake magnitude have major influence on the earthquake induced displacement, probability of failure and dynamic 2-D and 3-D safety factors.     

Stability analysis of laterally confined slope lying on inclined bedding plane

A stability analysis of a laterally confined slope model, lying on an inclined bedding plane, was presented to evaluate the lateral shear resistance by considering the loading paths and failure envelopes. Two slope models were prepared on a bedding plane by compaction, one with and one without lateral confinement. The compacted models are related to the geological conditions at shallow depths where brittle deformation can occur and an excavation can induce horizontal field stress that significantly influences the stability of the slope. Three distinct loading paths, controlled by either tilting the angles or increasing the surcharge loads, were applied to achieve the failure of the slope models. Rankine’s passive earth pressure due to compaction was reduced by the shear strength reduction ratio. The shear strength reduction ratio was estimated through the least-squares fitting method based on the results of model tests at failure when the loading paths intersected the failure envelope. Provided that the effect of lateral confinement in a rock mass can be described by the shear strength reduction ratio, the proposed equations will be beneficial for slope stability analyses of laterally confined slopes on bedding planes. A case study of an undercut pit wall in an open-pit mine was demonstrated by showing that the unknown shear strength reduction ratio can be back-analyzed from the rainfall-induced landslide case. Therefore, the design of other undercut slopes with different geometries and groundwater conditions in the rock mass, which have undergone the same geological process as the back-analyzed case, is possible.

     

白鹤滩水电站左岸坝肩开挖边坡稳定性分析

白鹤滩水电站左岸坝基边坡地质构造错综复杂,坡内多条陡倾断层和顺坡向错动带是控制边坡稳定性的主要因素。结合现场地质资料、监测数据及勘察认识,利用通用离散元软件UDEC建立左岸边坡开挖变形分析模型。首先在无支护开挖工况下研究主要结构面F17、LS331、LS3319上下盘岩体关键点应力及位移变化,并指出潜在失稳破坏区;同时采用预应力锚索单元在不同施工时序下对潜在不稳定块体进行加固计算,对比研究了不同方案下左岸边坡的变形破坏机制和整体稳定性。计算结果和现场监测表明：左岸边坡变形破坏与结构面密切相关,在开挖卸荷作用下主要表现为沿错动带的压剪破坏和陡倾断层的张拉破坏,采用预应力锚索加固处理能够有效提高边坡稳定性,并且在开挖后及时跟进支护可以有效抑制边坡剪切变形。研究结果对白鹤滩左岸坝基边坡后续工程加固和施工工序具有一定的参考价值。     

节理岩体边坡稳定性分析新方法

节理岩体边坡失稳破坏同时受控于节理与岩体抗剪强度。在对具有2组平行节理的岩体坡边失稳破坏机制研究基础上,研究了具有2组平行节理岩体边坡的极限平衡分析方法,并推导了相应的边坡稳定性分析计算公式,编制了基于潜在滑动面自动搜索的边坡稳定性研究程序。通过与文献中算例的对比研究,证明了所提出的节理岩体边坡稳定性分析方法的正确性,为具有2组平行节理岩体边坡的稳定性分析提供一条新的有效途径。     

The assessment of slope stability along NH-22 in Rampur-Jhakri Area,Himachal Pradesh

The present paper demonstrates the assessment of slope stability analysis between Rampur to Jhakri road section along National Highway (NH-22), Himachal Pradesh, India. The different types of slope failures have affected most part of slopes which causes considerable loss of life and property, inconveniences such as disruption of traffic along highways. The poorly designed rock slopes for road widening or construction purposes may weaken the stability of the slopes. A detail field investigation has been carried out to collect the representative rock samples for determination of physico-mechanical properties of rock and joint data for kinematic analysis. The rocks exposed in the area are highly jointed quartzite and quartz-mica schist of Rampur-Larji Group of Palaeoproterozoic age. The continuous slope mass rating (CSMR) technique has been applied for the assessment of slope stability analysis at five vulnerable locations and the results shows slopes are partially stable to unstable. Kinematic analysis mainly shows wedge type of failure along with few toppling and planar failures. The existing slope required immediate treatment to prevent the failure for its long term stability.     

基于遍布节理模型的边坡稳定性强度折减法分析

采用非线性数值分析方法分析边坡稳定性问题时,强度折减法因其具有较多的优点而得到广泛应用。岩土体一般采用理想弹塑性模型,屈服准则为广义米赛斯准则。对于密集节理岩质边坡稳定性问题,采用遍布节理模型可同时考虑岩块和节理属性,更符合岩体状态及工程实际,认为岩体经强度折减后潜在破坏可能首先出现在岩体中或沿节理面或二者同时破坏。结合工程实例,基于遍布节理模型的强度折减法计算结果表明,潜在滑移面为折线型滑面,下部潜在滑移面倾角与节理面等效内摩擦角基本一致,上部潜在滑移面与岩体拉破坏相关;节理倾角与边坡安全系数、潜在滑动范围密切相关,陡倾角节理对边坡稳定性影响较小。通过对边坡失稳判据和边坡滑移面确定的探讨,认为以力或位移不收敛作为边坡失稳判据是适当的,而边坡的剪应变速率物理意义十分明确,适于作为边坡潜在滑移面的确定依据。     

考虑场地效应的高陡岩质斜坡地震失稳机制

以金沙江乌东德水电站右岸的鸡冠山梁子高陡斜坡为典型实例,在斜坡表层地震动监测基础上,通过在斜坡弹性模型底部分别输入水平、竖向Ricker子波,发现：斜坡顶部低模量岩体材料在水平Rick子波激励下,易产生放大效应;而当输入竖向Rick子波时,易在模型表层地形凸起部位产生共振放大,其顶面表层卓越频率也与现场实测值基本一致。其次,对比分析了在分别输入汶川八角什邡加速度记录、典型鲁甸地震加速度记录时的斜坡弹塑性模型的稳定性和动力响应特征,发现：（1）斜坡在静力条件下可能存在3种不同位置潜在滑面,但输入两种地震波后,变形破坏区仅发生在顶部滑面位置;（2）输入汶川地震波时,斜坡顶部滑面剪应变增量明显大于输入鲁甸地震波时对应值,且前者的滑面出现明显整体拉破坏区,滑面上部水平、竖向残余变形也不收敛,处于震后斜坡失稳状态。后者滑面底部无明显的拉破坏区,滑面上部残余变形收敛,处于震后斜坡稳定状态;（3）斜坡水平、竖向加速度都在斜坡顶部低模量材料表层出现明显的放大现象,场地效应明显。此外,表层加速度普遍大于斜坡内部相应值,尤其是地形凸起位置。输入汶川地震波时斜坡顶部水平向加速度放大系数大于鲁甸地震波相应值,但竖向加速度放大系数两者基本一致。     

基于Barton-Bandis准则的锚固边坡稳定性分析

结合岩石节理面非线性Barton-Bandis破坏准则,探讨了将Barton-Bandis破坏准则参数转化为线性Mohr-Coulomb破坏准则抗剪强度参数的两种常用方法,通过实例分析了各方法的优劣。推导了加锚单岩石节理面控制的平面滑动岩体边坡抗滑稳定性安全系数计算式,开展了锚固参数分析。研究表明：相对于采用等效线性拟合法或切线等效法获取Mohr-Coulomb抗剪强度参数而言,直接应用Barton-Bandis破坏准则计算节理面控制的岩石边坡稳定性更为直观和简便;随着结构面基本摩擦角、结构面粗糙度系数和结构面壁面有效抗压强度的增大,边坡安全系数逐步提高,且结构面基本摩擦角和粗糙度系数对边坡安全系数的影响程度更为显著;锚索锚固力越大,边坡抗滑稳定性越好,而锚索设置角度越大,边坡抗滑稳定性越低,锚索角度设置不当将明显减小锚固效应的有效性。     

爆破影响下岩质高边坡浅表层块体稳定性研究

摘要:岩质高边坡整体稳定性主要受软弱结构面及其组合控制,在组合有利的情况下,边坡主要发生浅表层块体失稳,开挖时的爆破振动作用是影响浅表层块体稳定的重要因素。本文以大渡河中游某岩质块状结构高边坡为例研究浅表层块体的稳定性,在总结浅表层块体失稳特征的基础上,实测爆破振动曲线,进行块体稳定性评价。研究结果表明,开挖后已失稳浅表层块体大多小于10m3,80%受软弱结构面控制,70%集中在马道下缘;实测的浅表层块体爆破振动加速度曲线显示,与邻近围岩相比,浅表层块体振动持续时间长,频率低,峰值小;等效静力法评价结果较爆破参数推算法更适用于临界失稳浅表层块体的稳定性评价。     

Charnockite bedrock,Chennai coast,Tamil Nadu: Micromorphology and geochemical signatures in stages of the weathering processes

Occurrences of landslide are most common and critical issue in North-East India. The various types of slope failures have been affected most part of slopes and road section between Malidor to Sonapur area (approx 30 Km) along NH-44 within Jaintia hills district, Meghalaya, India. These slope failures causes considerable loss of life and property along with many inconveniences such as disruption of traffic along highways. The unscientific excavations of rock slopes for road widening or construction purposes may weaken the stability of the slopes. The rocks exposed in the area are highly jointed sandstone and shale of Barail Group of Oligocene age. The Sonapur landslide is most dangerous and destructive rock fall-cum debris flow. The present study includes the kinematic analysis of the slope to assess the potential failure directions as the rocks are highly jointed in some parts of road cut sections. The continuous slope mass rating (CSMR) technique has been applied for slope stability analysis at five vulnerable locations. Kinematic analysis indicates mainly wedge type of failure along with few toppling and planar failures. These failure required immediate treatment to prevent the slide and long term stability of the slope.     

Effect of Surcharge on the Stability of Anchored Rock Slope with Water Filled Tension Crack under Seismic Loading Condition

In this paper, an analytical expression is derived for the factor of safety of the rock slope incorporating most of the practically occurring destabilizing forces as well as the external stabilizing force through an anchoring system. The slope stability is analyzed as a two-dimensional problem, considering a slice of unit thickness through the slope and assuming negligible resistance to sliding at the lateral boundaries of the sliding block. A detailed parametric study is presented to investigate the effect of surcharge on the stability of the rock slope for practical ranges of governing parameters such as inclination of the slope face, inclination of the failure plane, depth of tension crack, depth of water in tension crack, shear strength parameters of the material at the failure plane, unit weight of rock, stabilizing force and its inclination, and seismic load. For the range of parameters considered in the present study, it is found that the factor of safety of the rock slope decreases with increase in surcharge; the rate of decrease being relatively higher for lower values of surcharge. It is also observed that for a specific surcharge, the factor of safety depends significantly on all other parameters, except for unit weight of rock and higher values of inclination of stabilizing force to the normal at the failure plane. For any combination of these variables, the surcharge plays a vital role in the stability. A perfectly stable slope at relatively low surcharge can become unsafe with the increase in surcharge. The deterioration in the stability can be quite rapid, depending on the combination of the factors under consideration. The analysis and the general expression proposed herein can be used to carry out a quantitative assessment of the stability of the rock slopes.     

长江巫峡岸坡座滑式危岩稳定性研究——以望霞座滑式危岩为例

通过对长江巫峡望霞座滑式危岩调查研究表明,在川东平行岭谷一系列平行展布的背斜山、向斜谷的窄岭宽谷地貌格局控制作用下,长江巫峡横石溪背斜岸坡近水平的灰岩与页岩、泥岩软硬互层结构为座滑式危岩的孕育提供了有利条件;对危岩软弱基座矿物成分 X-Ray 衍射的结果表明,绿泥石、云母、蒙脱石等层状结构硅酸盐矿物含量较高,其抗剪强度低,容易产生滑动,易沿主控结构面方向形成潜在破坏面,导致岩体整体剪出,发生座滑破坏。根据危岩发育机理,将三峡地区座滑式危岩破坏过程归纳为四个阶段,即：拉裂阶段、扩展阶段、失稳阶段和后期破坏阶段;并基于极限平衡理论和岩体结构理论,推导了座滑式危岩破坏的两组结构面的应力表达式,建立了座滑式危岩稳定性分析的力学模型。将该方法运用到望霞座滑式危岩案例计算表明,天然状况下危岩稳定系数为1.19,属于基本稳定岩体;在饱和状态下,随后缘裂隙充水高度的增加其稳定系数递减,当裂隙充水高度为10 m 时,稳定系数为1.15,当裂隙充水高度为20 m 时,稳定系数为1.07。     

基于离散元法的节理岩体边坡稳定性分析

节理岩体边坡的稳定性在很大程度上取决于节理的强度及其分布形式。由于节理岩体边坡的失稳破坏具有大变形和非连续的特点,因此,离散单元法成为研究节理岩体边坡破坏机制的最有效方法之一。通过采用离散元软件PFC2D进行数值模拟,对完整岩石及节理的力学性能进行研究,并建立含密集节理的岩体边坡模型,讨论了节理连通率对边坡破坏形式的影响。结果表明,节理岩体边坡的失稳破坏是一个渐进的过程;在多组节理密集分布的岩体边坡中,连通率越大,其稳定性越差;随着连通率的减小,边坡的破坏形式由大范围的滑坡转变为局部崩塌的形式     

Applicability Research on the Dip Slope with Interbeddings of Weak and Strong Rocks Using Strength Reduction Method

Based on the combination of FLAC^3D software and strength reduction method, the applicability of three kinds of instability criterion of the stability of dip slopes with interbeddings of weak and hard rocks is studied. Then the failure process, failure mode and stability of the slopes are analyzed. The results show that: (1) the maximum unbalance rate affects the final calculated results; there is no certain relation between the convergence of calculation and the slope stability. The convergence of the displacement curves of key points and the ultimate displacement values should also be concerned to determine the slope stability. The maximum unbalance rate and the amplitude of the reduction affect the determination of the characteristic point in the displacement curve. It is difficult to quantitatively evaluate the shear strain rate when judging the slope stability, the judgment is not convenient and the error is large. Combining with calculation convergence criterion and feature point displacement mutation criterion is helpful to improve the accuracy of judgment on the limit state of the slope. (2) Slope deformation and failure process can be roughly divided into four stages qualitatively; the rock mass has buckling failure can be divided into three stages according to the deformation characteristics. The potential shear export of slope with buckling failure locates above the slope toe. Different combinations of weak and strong rock thickness does not affect the failure mode of slope, which all bellows to buckling failure mode, but it will affect the slope stability coefficient; with the increase of the thickness of strong rock and weak rock, the stability coefficient increases. If the thickness of the strong rock increases, the stability coefficient increases as well when the thickness ratio is constant.     

逆层岩质边坡地震动力破坏过程FLAC/PFC耦合数值模拟分析

建立含有非贯通层面和正交次级节理的逆层岩质边坡FLAC/PFC2D耦合计算模型,进行地震动力破坏过程模拟试验,研究了逆层岩质边坡地震动力破坏机理。试验结果证明,在地震动力破坏过程中,边坡内部层面主要产生剪切破坏,少量张拉破坏集中于逆层边坡顶部位置并且总是发生在坡体已经产生动力失稳之后,因此层面的抗拉强度并不影响逆层边坡的地震动力稳定性。坡顶正交次级节理只能产生张拉破坏,形成宏观的岩层倾倒趋势,而坡底的正交次级节理既会产生张拉破坏,也会产生剪切破坏,破坏面滑动趋势明显。动力响应坡顶放大效应和破坏面发育位置深度导致坡顶岩体的张拉倾倒早于坡底岩体的剪切滑动,与逆层边坡静力倾倒破坏顺序相反。