Low temperature alteration of magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides as a source for hydrothermal Ni and PGE ores: A quantitative approach using automated mineralogy

Magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide assemblages are almost ubiquitously comprised of pyrrhotite-pentlandite-chalcopyrite(-pyrite). Sulfide alteration is common during syn- or post-magmatic fluid interaction, usually replacing sulfides with amphiboles or serpentine. However, some are altered to a low temperature (<200 °C) hydrothermal assemblage of pyrite-millerite-chalcopyrite (PMC). An example is the Ni-Cu-PGE mineralisation in the Grasvally-Norite-Pyroxenite-Anorthosite (GNPA) Member, northern Bushveld Complex, which displays a continuum of mineralogical styles formed through progressive alteration: Style 1 primary pyrrhotite-pentlandite-chalcopyrite; which is altered to Style 2 pyrrhotite-pyrite-pentlandite-chalcopyrite; Style 3 pyrite-pentlandite-chalcopyrite; Style 4 pyrite-pentlandite-millerite-chalcopyrite; and Style 5 pyrite-millerite-chalcopyrite-cubanite. Modelling using CHILLER confirms this mineralogical sequence is thermodynamically possible at ∼200 °C. Quantitative characterisation using automated Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy mapping alongside in situ laser ablation analyses determined mineral proportions, major and trace element concentrations and deportments in each style. The early loss of pyrrhotite removes over half of the bulk Fe and S during the initial stages of PMC alteration, increasing Cu, Ni and PGE tenors of the remaining sulfides significantly. As water–rock interaction progresses, pyrrhotite is replaced by pyrite and pentlandite by millerite, with concurrent losses in Fe, S and Ni. Copper is lost throughout the alteration, and is most pronounced in the more advanced stages. The fluids responsible were most likely acidic and oxidised, with metals mobilised as chloride complexes. Using Rh as an immobile normalising element, the overall mass loss in the most altered samples is calculated to be up to 90%, consistent with textural relationships that indicate 40–90% volume loss from Styles 2–5, with sulfides replaced by secondary silicates, including phlogopite, quartz, chlorite, pyroxenes and minor amphiboles. Magnetite is not a significant alteration product and thus Fe is mobilised, or incorporated into silicates. Most trace elements present in the magmatic sulfide (the IPGE, Rh and Bi) remain in the sulfide phases, and are effectively transferred to pyrite during PMC alteration, except Pd, which remains in pentlandite, and is liberated from the sulfide assemblage when pentlandite disappears. Selenium tenors increase slightly with alteration, demonstrating that alteration decreases S/Se ratios. The significant mobilisation of Ni, Cu and Pd during PMC alteration produces fluids enriched in these elements that may represent a metal source for a number of enigmatic hydrothermal Ni deposits such as Avebury, Enterprise and Talvivaara, whose metal sources remain speculative. The PMC alteration of the GNPA Member may be specifically a source for the nearby Waterberg hydrothermal Pt deposit. Furthermore, this study has implications not only for magmatic ore deposits, but also for the general implications of sulfide transformation and metal transfer in ore systems in general.     

Geology and geochemistry of the Huilvshan gold deposit,Xinjiang, China: Implications for mechanism of gold precipitation

The Huilvshan gold deposit in the west Junggar (Xinjiang, China) is hosted in chloritized basalts, chlorite–siderite-altered basalts, and quartz–siderite rocks. Our study demonstrated that all these rocks were derived by alteration of basalts in a shear zone. The orebodies, consisting of quartz-sulfide veins and disseminated sulfides, formed in five stages: quartz–muscovite (I), disseminated sulfides (II), quartz–ankerite-sulfide (III), quartz–calcite-sulfide (IV), and quartz–calcite (V). Auriferous minerals are native gold in stage III and electrum in stage IV. During alteration of basalts in the shear zone, ore-forming elements were released from basalts to ore-forming fluid. Compared with fresh basalts, sulfide-bearing chloritized basalts contain much higher Sr, Ba, P, La, Ce, U, Mn, Ni, Zn, As, Ag, and Au contents. Phase analysis of the As–Cu–Fe–S–O system with the SUPCRT92 software package indicates that a decrease of the a_H2S value, caused by the fluid–rock reactions and crystallization of sulfides, induced gold precipitation.     

Textural,mineralogical and stable isotope studies of hydrothermal alteration in the main sulfide zone of the Great Dyke,Zimbabwe and the precious metals zone of the Sonju Lake Intrusion,Minnesota, USA

Stratigraphic offsets in the peak concentrations of platinum-group elements (PGE) and base-metal sulfides in the main sulfide zone of the Great Dyke and the precious metals zone of the Sonju Lake Intrusion have, in part, been attributed to the interaction between magmatic PGE-bearing base-metal sulfide assemblages and hydrothermal fluids. In this paper, we provide mineralogical and textural evidence that indicates alteration of base-metal sulfides and mobilization of metals and S during hydrothermal alteration in both mineralized intrusions. Stable isotopic data suggest that the fluids involved in the alteration were of magmatic origin in the Great Dyke but that a meteoric water component was involved in the alteration of the Sonju Lake Intrusion. The strong spatial association of platinum-group minerals, principally Pt and Pd sulfides, arsenides, and tellurides, with base-metal sulfide assemblages in the main sulfide zone of the Great Dyke is consistent with residual enrichment of Pt and Pd during hydrothermal alteration. However, such an interpretation is more tenuous for the precious metals zone of the Sonju Lake Intrusion where important Pt and Pd arsenides and antimonides occur as inclusions within individual plagioclase crystals and within alteration assemblages that are free of base-metal sulfides. Our observations suggest that Pt and Pd tellurides, antimonides, and arsenides may form during both magmatic crystallization and subsolidus hydrothermal alteration. Experimental studies of magmatic crystallization and hydrothermal transport/deposition in systems involving arsenides, tellurides, antimonides, and base metal sulfides are needed to better understand the relative importance of magmatic and hydrothermal processes in controlling the distribution of PGE in mineralized layered intrusions of this type.     

Hydrothermal alteration processes in the giant Dahutang tungsten deposit,South China: Implications from litho-geochemistry and mass balance calculation

The giant Dahutang tungsten (W) deposit has a total reserve of more than 1.31 Mt WO₃. Veinlet-disseminated scheelite and vein type wolframite mineralization are developed in this deposit, which are related to Late Mesozoic biotite granite. Four major types of alterations, which include albitization, potassic-alteration, and greisenization, and overprinted silicification developed in contact zone. The mass balance calculate of the four alteration types were used to further understanding of the mineralization process. The fresh porphyritic biotite granite has high Nb, Ta, and W, but low Ca and Sr while the Jiuling granodiorite has high Ca and Sr, but low Nb, Ta, and W concentrations. The altered porphyritic biotite granite indicated that the Nb, Ta, and W were leached out from the fresh porphyritic biotite granite, especially by sodic alteration. The low Ca and Sr contents of the altered Neoproterozoic Jiuling granodiorite indicate that Ca and Sr had been leached out from the fresh granodiorite by the fluid from Mesozoic porphyritic biotite granites. The metal W of the Dahutang deposit was mainly derived from the fluid exsolution from the melt and alteration of W-bearing granites. This study of alteration presents a new hydrothermal circulation model to understand tungsten mineralization in the Dahutang deposit.     

贵州天桥铅锌矿床REE地球化学特征

稀土元素是示踪成矿流体来源的有效手段之一。利用电感耦合等离子体质谱（ICP—MS）对贵州天桥铅锌矿床成矿期方解石REE含量进行了分析。结合前人发表的峨眉山玄武岩、辉绿岩、矿石、硫化物、蚀变围岩、地层碳酸盐岩及地层中黄铁矿的REE数据,探讨了天桥铅锌矿床REE地球化学特征及其对成矿流体来源的指示意义。     

Metallogeny of the Nicholas-Denys Pb–Zn–Ag deposit,Bathurst Mining Camp,Canada

The Nicholas-Denys Pb–Zn–Ag deposit, located in the Bathurst Mining Camp (New Brunswick), consists of several pyrrhotite–sphalerite–galena sulfide lenses hosted by black mudstone of the Millstream Formation of the Fournier Group, deposited in an Ordovician backarc basin. The Nicholas-Denys sulfide lenses and hydrothermal alteration are conformable to the bedding-parallel S₁ regional foliation, and are sheared parallel to the Rocky Brook-Millstream shear zone, indicating a pre-Devonian deformation timing for mineralization. Reduced sulfur for Nicholas-Denys sulfides comes from bacterial reduction of Ordovician seawater sulfates in a system open to sulfates under partially oxygenated bottomwater conditions, with addition of magmatic sulfur from underlying mafic volcanic rocks. Lead was leached from the backarc basin sediments of the Millstream Formation mudstone and from underlying synvolcanic gabbros. The mineralizing fluid for Nicholas-Denys sulfides was reduced and acidic, favorable for precipitation of a pyrrhotite-rich mineralization. Characteristics of the Nicholas-Denys deposit are compatible with a SEDEX-type classification.     

南澜沧江带勐满热泉型金矿床成矿作用:热液蚀变与元素地球化学制约

勐满金矿床是西南三江特提斯造山带迄今为止报导的为数不多的热泉型金矿床之一,也是南澜沧江带唯一发现的该成因类型的金矿床。然而目前对勐满金矿床热液蚀变特征的分析不足和地球化学数据的缺乏,一直制约着对其成矿过程的深入理解。勐满金矿床原生矿体产于早古生代澜沧群曼来组片岩和侏罗纪花开左组碎屑岩不整合面附近,断裂构造导流、控矿作用显著。矿区两类围岩均发生强烈蚀变,但蚀变类型简单,仅为硅化和高岭土化,与金成矿密切相关。热液高岭土化的大量发育,反映围岩中的长石等含铝矿物与呈酸性的流体发生作用。全岩微量元素组成对比研究表明,近矿围岩蚀变过程中未发生明显的微量元素迁移。镜下观察到Au与黄铜矿等金属硫化物共生,元素相关性分析显示Au与Ag、Cu、Pb、As、S、Sb等元素有正相关趋势,表明它们由统一热液系统携带并发生卸载。在弱酸性成矿流体中,Au主要以金硫络合物的形式进行迁移。当含Au流体运移至地层不整合面附近时,与围岩反应并发生强烈高岭土化,导致流体中的SiO_2和高岭石含量急剧增加,逐渐在矿区导流断裂中沉淀下来。断裂变窄甚至封闭,流体内压持续升高,最终发生爆破,成矿流体强烈减压沸腾,引发金硫络合物失稳,Au发生卸载并沉淀。该过程反复多次发生,形成了矿区含金硅质角砾岩及蚀变岩型矿石。     

Hydrothermal alteration and sulfide mineralization in gabbroids of the Markov Deep (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 6° N)

A new type of sulfide occurrence related to metasomatically altered brecciated gabbroids has been studied at the Sierra Leone site situated in the axial rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Markov Deep, 6° N). Two associations of plutonic, subvolcanic, and volcanic rocks were dredged: (1) mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and their intrusive analogues and (2) rocks of the silicic Fe-Ti-oxide series with dominating gabbronorites and sporadic trondhjemites. Almost all igneous rocks at the Sierra Leone site are enriched in Pb, Cu, U, Ga, Ta, Nb, Cs, and Rb and depleted in Zr, Th, and Hf. The rocks of the Fe-Ti-oxide series are enriched in Zn, Sn, and Mo and depleted in Ni and Cr. The main ore-bearing zone is situated at the foot of the eastern wall of the deep, where it is hosted in cataclastic hornblende gabbro and gabbronorite of the Fe-Ti-oxide series. Ore mineralization in metasomatically altered rocks is composed of quartz-sulfide and prehnite-sulfide veinlets, disseminated sulfide, and veined copper sulfide ore. The ore consists of pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, bornite, chalcocite, and digenite. The δ³⁴S value of sulfides varies from 3.0 to 15.3‰. At the foot of the eastern wall of the Markov Deep, directly downslope from the ore-bearing zone, loose sediments contain grains of native Cu, Pb, Zn, and Sn and intermetallic compounds (isoferroplatinum, tetraferroplatinum, and brass) apparently derived from the ore. Mineral assemblages of ore-bearing metasomatic rocks and fluid inclusions therein were studied. Ore metasomatism developed under a low oxygen potential within a temperature interval from 400 to 160°C, though initial hydrothermal alteration of rocks proceeded at temperatures of 800–450°C. The temperature of stringer-disseminated ore mineralization is estimated at 170–280°C. The hydrothermal fluids are considered to be of magmatic origin; as the hydrothermal system evolved, they became diluted with seawater that was contained in fractured oceanic crust. The ore matter could have been derived from magmatic fluids that were released from water-saturated melts of the Fe-Ti oxide series during their ascent and leached from host gabbroids in the process of metasomatic alteration.     

Application of short-wave infrared spectroscopy to define alteration zones associated with the Elura zinc–lead–silver deposit, NSW, Australia

Short-wave infrared reflectance spectra obtained from a Portable Infrared Mineral Analyser (PIMA) have been used to define alteration zones adjacent to base metal sulfide ore bodies at the Elura Mine, Cobar, Australia. The spectroscopic work identified white mica (sericite), chlorite and carbonates of hydrothermal origin in the alteration zones associated with the ore bodies. Weathering, alteration and ore zones can be discriminated by variations in the intensity and wavelength of relevant absorption features. Hydrothermal alteration is classified into four principal types, namely sericitic, silicic, chloritic and carbonate alteration. The first three types comprise overprinting hydrothermal assemblages of quartz, sericite, chlorite, ankerite, siderite, calcite and sulfides developed in strongly altered metasiltstone and slate of Early Devonian age, adjacent to the zinc–lead–silver mineralisation. An extensive zone of carbonate alteration, manifested as porphyroblasts of siderite in the host metasediments, is recognised beyond the zones of strong alteration. Spectral analysis is consistent with the mineralogical data obtained from XRD and XRF analyses and defines the limits of the alteration zones to distances of about 80 m around the ore bodies. The study demonstrates the potential for spectral analysis to assist with drill hole logging and the identification of alteration zones as part of mineral exploration and development programs.     

现代海底热液过程及成矿

原始的海水成分、基岩的组分及结构、热源性质等因素决定着现代海底热液喷口系统的流体成分, 同时, 各种地质构造背景下的岩浆脱气作用也在不同程度上影响热液流体的组成.热液流体一旦喷出海底, 就能形成不同类型的热液沉积体, 包括高温流体形成的金属硫化物或硫酸盐烟囱体、热液丘以及由低温弥散流及非浮力羽流形成的含金属沉积物堆积体.高温烟囱体的形成受控于海水和热液的混合比例, 常常表现为典型的两阶段模式, 即先形成环状硬石膏表层, 然后在其内部发生富Cu硫化物的沉淀.这一模式在更大尺度上也可以观察到, 如TAG热液丘.含金属沉积物遍布海底, 除热液羽流外, 金属硫化物烟囱体在氧化环境中氧化蚀变的产物也是其重要来源.生物的活动贯穿于现代热液过程的始终, 并在烟囱体的形成、分解以及羽流的扩散沉淀过程中起到了重要作用.当前, 热液生物矿化机理、Lost City型热液场以及超慢速扩张洋脊的有关研究是海底这一系统研究的热点, 前两者研究能使人们更好地理解地球早期的演化和生命的起源, 而后者的考察和研究能进一步丰富海底热液成矿理论, 并有助于寻找更大规模的热液矿体.      

Rb-sr dating of epithermal vein mineralization stages in the eastern Harz Mountains (Germany) by paleomixing lines

A method is evaluated that enables the dating of binary isotopic paleomixing in hydrothermal alteration assemblages by iterative reconstruction and regression of corresponding two-component mixing lines from conventional Rb-Sr data. The model has been applied to illite-bearing granulometric fractions of hydrothermally altered sedimentary rocks associated with epithermal vein mineralization in the eastern Harz Mountains, Germany. These veins are characterized by a principal quartz-sulfide stage containing quartz, base metal sulfides, and siderite and a subsequent dominant calcite-fluorite-quartz stage. Rb-Sr analyses were performed on untreated granulometric fractions, HCl-treated residues, corresponding HCl leachates, and cogenetic vein minerals obtained from two silicified rock samples related to the quartz-sulfide and the calcite-fluorite-quartz mineralization, respectively.Neither the untreated nor the HCl-leached fractions of these rock samples yield statistically robust and geochronologically meaningful isochrons. When applying the binary mixing model, however, two well-defined paleomixing lines can be reconstructed for the HCl-treated fractions of the rock samples and associated vein minerals at model ages of 226 ± 1 Ma (quartz-sulfide alteration) and 209 ± 2 Ma (calcite-fluorite-quartz alteration). We examine the significance and reliability of these model ages and the corresponding paleomixing lines by means of statistical and geological criteria and discuss the effects of leaching experiments performed on the granulometric fractions using 1 N HCl as well as the nature and origin of the components dissolved in the acid leachates.Our results suggest that the mixing model provides a successful dating concept for isotopic disequilibrium processes during low-temperature hydrothermal events that produce binary mixtures among newly formed alteration phases.     

青海化隆地区拉水峡铜镍矿床地质、 地球化学特征及成因

拉水峡铜镍矿床位于化隆基性—超基性岩带中,岩体几乎全岩发生铜、镍硫化物矿化,且已遭受强烈蚀变,以角闪岩为主。岩浆期主要金属硫化物矿物组合为磁黄铁矿、黄铜矿、镍黄铁矿;热液蚀变期主要有紫硫镍矿、黄铁矿、黄铜矿、针镍矿等;氧化表生期主要为含镍高岭石、含镍绿泥石、孔雀石等。矿石轻稀土元素富集和负Eu异常明显,说明岩浆演化过程中发生了大量斜长石等的分离结晶作用。∑PGE含量平均为2460.46×10-9,(Pd+Pt)/(Os+Ir+Ru)值为0.40~2.00,表明铂族元素与岩浆深部熔离作用密切相关;但Pt/Pd(0.01~2.62)、Pd/Ir(0.91~8.77)说明热液作用对铂族元素具有一定的富集作用。S同位素组成变化范围很小,δ34S平均值为2.24‰,硫化物中的S以地幔S为主。拉水峡矿床的形成经历了岩浆融离贯入、热液叠加改造及表生氧化作用3个阶段。     

The mineral chemistry of hydrothermally altered and metamorphosed wall-rocks at the Stollberg Fe-Pb-Zn-Mn(-Ag) deposit,Bergslagen, Sweden

The c. 1.9 Ga old Stollberg sulphide and Mnrich skarn iron ores and sulphide ores in Bergslagen, south-central Sweden are hosted by hydrothermally altered and metamorphosed felsic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. The ores are underlain by comformable alteration zones characterized by albite-gedrite-quartz and biotite-muscovite-plagioclase-K-feldspar-quartz +/– garnet assemblages. The present mineralogies are interpreted as medium-grade metamorphic equivalents to the original alteration mineral assemblages. PT-conditions during prograde regional metamorphism are semiquantatively determined to be 510 to 560 °C at approximately 3 kbar. With increasing modal content of gedrite and biotite in the alteration zones, the Mg/Fe ratios and X_Mg's in octahedral positions of these minerals also increase. In the gedrite-bearing strata, whole-rock Mg/Fe ratios remain constant, whereas in the biotite-rich unit the wholerock Mg/Fe trend is parallel to that of the biotites.The trends in the metamorphic mineral composition are interpreted to be a product of original changes in fluid composition during the evolution of a sub-seafloor hydrothermal system. During the initial stage of alteration, Fe-Mn-rich fluids altered the rocks, and during a later stage, the fluids became more Mg-rich, possibly due to entrainment of fresh seawater, and the alteration zones became relatively more Mg-rich. Sulphide precipitation was contemperaneous with Mg metasomatism, suggesting base metal precipitation was a function of the mixing of cool seawater with hydrothermal fluid. It is proposed that early hydrothermal alteration was associated with the deposition of areally extensive Fe-oxide formation, and that Mg metasomatism defines a second stage of hydrothermal activity during which sulphide mineralization overprinted the earlier formed Fe-oxide deposit.     

青海化隆地区拉水峡铜镍矿床地质、地球化学特征及成因

拉水峡铜镍矿床位于化隆基性—超基性岩带中,岩体几乎全岩发生铜、镍硫化物矿化,且已遭受强烈蚀变,以角闪岩为主。岩浆期主要金属硫化物矿物组合为磁黄铁矿、黄铜矿、镍黄铁矿;热液蚀变期主要有紫硫镍矿、黄铁矿、黄铜矿、针镍矿等;氧化表生期主要为含镍高岭石、含镍绿泥石、孔雀石等。矿石轻稀土元素富集和负Eu异常明显,说明岩浆演化过程中发生了大量斜长石等的分离结晶作用。∑PGE含量平均为2460.46×10-9,（Pd＋Pt）/（Os＋Ir＋Ru）值为0.40~2.00,表明铂族元素与岩浆深部熔离作用密切相关;但Pt/Pd（0.01~2.62）、Pd/Ir（0.91~8.77）说明热液作用对铂族元素具有一定的富集作用。S同位素组成变化范围很小,δ34S平均值为2.24‰,硫化物中的S以地幔S为主。拉水峡矿床的形成经历了岩浆融离贯入、热液叠加改造及表生氧化作用3个阶段。     

柴北缘赛坝沟金矿深部热液蚀变作用北大核心CSCD

赛坝沟金矿是青海省柴北缘构造带东段重要的金矿床,矿体受NW-NNW向韧-脆性断裂构造组控制,主要赋存于奥陶系英云闪长岩中,矿化蚀变主要有硅化、黄铁矿化、绢英岩化、绿泥石化、绿帘石化和碳酸盐化等。本文在厘定赛坝沟金矿热液蚀变类型、矿物组合特征以及蚀变空间变化关系的基础上,选取Ⅳ-4主矿体在AZK3901钻孔深部见矿岩心及底板蚀变围岩进行研究,通过对蚀变岩及其原岩的地球化学分析,剖析热液蚀变作用过程与机理。研究结果表明,赛坝沟金矿床钻孔深部蚀变中,绿泥石化绿帘石化及强糜棱岩化岩石表现为主量元素K_(2)O、CaO的明显带入和Na_(2)O的带出,大离子亲石元素Pb、Ba、Sr的带出以及过渡族金属元素Bi、Co、Cr的带入;黄铁矿绢英岩化、硅化岩石中,主量元素K_(2)O、SiO_(2),大离子亲石元素Rb、Ba、Cs、Pb以及过渡族金属元素均表现出不同程度的带入;各蚀变岩石中稀土元素以及高场强元素并未表现变化,仅在近矿体处出现了轻重稀土的解耦以及高场强元素Zr元素的带入。综合研究认为,赛坝沟金矿强糜棱岩化绿泥石化英云闪长岩为强烈的韧性剪切和脆性断裂叠加改造作用的产物,对流体成矿物质的运移形成了一定的屏障,使得成矿物质大部分沉淀在硅化、绢英岩化带内,局部发育的方解石细脉与成矿晚期碳酸盐化作用相关。金的沉淀主要是由于含矿流体温度、压力的下降和氧逸度的升高,使得含矿流体与围岩强烈反应形成硅化、绢云母化,同时伴随成矿流体pH值的增大和H^(+)的减少,热液中含硫组分与Fe元素发生反应形成黄铁矿等硫化物,破坏了含金络合物的稳定性,导致金的大量沉淀。     

Hydrothermal alteration of oceanic basalts by seawater

Hydrothermally altered pillow basalts dredged from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and belonging to the greenschist facies, have been studied in order to determine the mineralogical and corresponding chemical changes, that result from basalt-seawater interaction at elevated temperatures.The mineralogical transformations are predominantly to albite-actinolite-chlorite-epidote assemblages. Quartz and pyrite are common accessory minerals. On the basis of their mineralogy, the samples may be divided into chlorite-rich and epidote-rich assemblages. The chlorite-rich assemblages, which are the predominant variety, show the greatest chemical changes, while the epidote-rich samples show very little change in composition compared with their basaltic precursors.Mass balances across individual pillows in which the central portions are relatively unaltered allow the directions and ranges of elemental fluxes to be calculated. In general, SiO₂ and CaO are leached from the basalt, while MgO and H₂O are taken up. No consistent trends are observed for Na₂O and K₂O although they do show some variations in the core-and-rim analyses.Consideration of the elemental fluxes in terms of steady-state geochemical mass balances for oceanic inputs and outputs indicates that hydrothermal alteration provides a sink for Mg, which may be extremely important in solving the problem of apparent excess Mg input to the oceans. The amount of Ca that is leached from the rock may be of significance in the geochemical budget of that element. The amount of SiO₂ in the circulating fluid is controlled by the solubility of quartz or amorphous silica, depending on temperature, and considerable redistribution of silica takes place within the basaltic pile. The changes in redox conditions during hydrothermal alteration do not affect the present day oxidation state of the atmosphere and hydrosphere.     

西北某花岗岩型碱交代热液铀矿床蚀变带中重矿物的性状

花岗岩型碳酸钠质交代热液铀矿床蚀变带中的重矿物有明显的改造与叠加现象。随着矿物的解离,热液从围岩中获取了部分矿源。主要铀矿化是在热液连续活动的晚期,铀与金属硫化物共沉淀。本文就西北某花岗岩体在碳酸钠质热液作用下所发生的重矿物组合含量及主要重矿物性质的一系列变化,以及与此有关的铀的活化转移与沉淀阶段等问题进行讨论。     

Columbitization of fluorcalciopyrochlore by hydrothermalism at the Saint-Honoré alkaline complex,Québec (Canada): New insights on halite in carbonatites

Niobium (Nb) in carbonatite is mainly hosted in fluorcalciopyrochlore and columbite-(Fe). Information related to Nb petrogenesis is useful for understanding the processes related to Nb mineralization and carbonatite evolution. The Saint-Honoré, Quebec, alkaline complex offers a rare opportunity for studying these processes as the complex is not affected by post-emplacement deformation, metamorphism nor weathering. Columbite-(Fe) is shown to be an alteration product of fluorcalciopyrochlore (columbitization). Columbitization is characterized by the leaching of Na and F from the A- and Y-sites of the pyrochlore crystal structure. As alteration increases, Fe and Mn are slowly introduced while Ca is simultaneously leached. Leached Ca and F then crystallize as inclusions of calcite and fluorite within the columbite-(Fe). A-site cations and vacancies in the crystal structure of fresh and altered pyrochlores demonstrate that pyrochlore alteration is hydrothermal in origin. Moreover, halite is a ubiquitous mineral in the Saint-Honoré alkaline complex. Petrographic evidence shows that halite forms in weakly altered pyrochlores, suggesting halite has a secondary origin. As alteration increases, halite is expelled by the hydrothermal fluid and is carried farther into the complex, filling factures throughout the carbonatite. The hydrothermal hypothesis is strengthened by significant enrichments in Cl and HREEs in columbite-(Fe). Chlorine is most likely introduced by a hydrothermal fluid that increases the solubility of REEs.     

Mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of hydrothermal alteration of basalt in the Kuroko mine area, Japan: implications for the evolution of a Back Arc Basin hydrothermal system

Basalt in the Furutobe District of the Kuroko mine area in Japan is characterized by abundant chlorite and epidote. Fluid inclusion studies indicate that chlorite is formed at lower temperatures (230–250°C) than epidote (250–280°C). The seawater/basalt mass ratio for the early chlorite-rich alteration was high (max. 40), but that for the later alteration was low (0.1–1.8). The CaO, Na₂O and SiO₂ of the bulk rock correlate negatively with MgO, while FeO and Σ Fe correlate positively with MgO. These changes in the characteristic features of hydrothermal alteration from early to late are generally similar to those for a mid-ocean ridge geothermal system accompanying basalt alteration.The MgO/FeO ratios of chlorite and actinolite and the Fe₂O₃ concentration of epidote from the basalt are greater than those of mid-ocean ridge basalt probably owing to the differences in the Fe₂O₃/FeO and MgO/FeO ratios of the parent rocks. The lower CaO concentration and the higher Na₂O concentration of the bulk rock compared with altered mid-ocean ridge basalt can be interpreted in terms of the difference in original bulk rock compositions.The Furutobe basalt, as well as other submarine back arc basalts, contains more vesicles filled with hydrothermal minerals (epidote, calcite, quartz, chlorite, pyrite) than do the mid-ocean ridge basalts. The abundance of vesicles plays an important role in controlling the secondary mineralogy and geochemistry of hydrothermally altered submarine back arc basin basalts.     

Metavolcanic host rocks,mineralization, and gossans of the Shaib al Tair and Rabathan volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits of the Wadi Bidah Mineral District,Saudi Arabia

The Wadi Bidah Mineral District of Saudi Arabia contains more than 16 small outcropping stratabound volcanogenic Cu–Zn–(Pb) ± Au-bearing massive sulphide deposits and associated zones of hydrothermal alteration. Here, we use major and trace element analyses of massive sulphides, gossans, and hydrothermally altered and least altered metamorphosed host rock (schist) from two of the deposits (Shaib al Tair and Rabathan) to interpret the geochemical and petrological evolution of the host rocks and gossanization of the mineralization. Tectonic interpretations utilize high-field-strength elements, including the rare earth elements (REE), because they are relatively immobile during hydrothermal alteration, low-grade metamorphism, and supergene weathering and therefore are useful in constraining the source, composition, and physicochemical parameters of the primary igneous rocks, the mineralizing hydrothermal fluid and subsequent supergene weathering processes. Positive Eu anomalies in some of the massive sulphide samples are consistent with a high temperature (>250°C) hydrothermal origin, consistent with the Cu contents (up to 2 wt.%) of the massive sulphides. The REE profiles of the gossans are topologically similar to nearby hydrothermally altered felsic schists (light REE (LREE)-enriched to concave-up REE profiles, with or without positive Eu anomalies) suggesting that the REE experienced little fractionation during metamorphism or supergene weathering. Hydrothermally altered rocks (now schists) close to the massive sulphide deposits have high base metals and Ba contents and have concave-up REE patterns, in contrast to the least altered host rocks, consistent with greater mobility of the middle REE compared to the light and heavy REE during hydrothermal alteration. The gossans are interpreted to represent relict massive sulphides that have undergone supergene weathering; ‘chert’ beds within these massive sulphide deposits may be leached wall-rock gossans that experienced silicification and Pb–Ba–Fe enrichment from acidic groundwaters generated during gossan formation.