Protracted Environmental Issues on a Proposed Titanium Minerals Development in Kenya's South Coast

This study takes cognizance of the fact that the TIOMIN (TIOMIN Resources Inc. of Canada) project has resulted in controversy over its handling of environmental issues and especially the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The authors address many of the protracted issues that have slowed the development of the mining project in Kwale. The main emphasis is on the impacts of the mining and mineral separation processes on the environment, including the governing legislation, the role of consultation and public participation, and socioeconomic issues. In their public documents TIOMIN has specified neither the type of minerals it wants to extract from the area nor their chemical composition. It is well known, however that the titanium minerals and zircon targeted have impurities of iron, thorium and uranium. In the absence of an Environmental Management Plan, the effects of stockpiling radioactive wastes and other impurities that could possibly lead to environmental degradation in both the terrestrial and marine environments have not been publically addressed. The measures proposed to mitigate ecological damage as a result of the establishment of a minerals processing plant in the area seem inadequate. Pollution resulting from accidental spillage or breakage could have significant impact on marine life and residents living near the mining site. Other issues that have not been addressed satisfactorily pertain to the use of surface and underground water. The area already faces a huge water deficit and the calculations presented on aquifer recharge and stream flow rates do not indicate the large quantities of water that would be required in the mineral processing plant. The project, if approved in its present state, risks violation of international conventions. Furthermore, it could cause a conflict between Kenya and Tanzania in the event of an oil spill at the proposed ship loading facility at Shimoni. The proposed mining area includes the district's most fertile land, is home to many fisherfolk and is a major tourist destination. An analysis of the effects of this project on other available opportunities must be thoroughly understood to ascertain the economic and environmental benefits and costs of the mining venture. The proposed compensation rate of $1,000 per acre, for resettlement for example, appears to be grossly inadequate. Compensation should take into account family size and structure family assets and the cost of relocation.     

Protracted Environmental Issues on a Proposed Titanium Minerals Development in Kenya's South Coast

This study takes cognizance of the fact that the TIOMIN (TIOMIN Resources Inc. of Canada) project has resulted in controversy over its handling of environmental issues and especially the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The authors address many of the protracted issues that have slowed the development of the mining project in Kwale. The main emphasis is on the impacts of the mining and mineral separation processes on the environment, including the governing legislation, the role of consultation and public participation, and socioeconomic issues. In their public documents TIOMIN has specified neither the type of minerals it wants to extract from the area nor their chemical composition. It is well known, however that the titanium minerals and zircon targeted have impurities of iron, thorium and uranium. In the absence of an Environmental Management Plan, the effects of stockpiling radioactive wastes and other impurities that could possibly lead to environmental degradation in both the terrestrial and marine environments have not been publically addressed. The measures proposed to mitigate ecological damage as a result of the establishment of a minerals processing plant in the area seem inadequate. Pollution resulting from accidental spillage or breakage could have significant impact on marine life and residents living near the mining site. Other issues that have not been addressed satisfactorily pertain to the use of surface and underground water. The area already faces a huge water deficit and the calculations presented on aquifer recharge and stream flow rates do not indicate the large quantities of water that would be required in the mineral processing plant. The project, if approved in its present state, risks violation of international conventions. Furthermore, it could cause a conflict between Kenya and Tanzania in the event of an oil spill at the proposed ship loading facility at Shimoni. The proposed mining area includes the district's most fertile land, is home to many fisherfolk and is a major tourist destination. An analysis of the effects of this project on other available opportunities must be thoroughly understood to ascertain the economic and environmental benefits and costs of the mining venture. The proposed compensation rate of $1,000 per acre, for resettlement for example, appears to be grossly inadequate. Compensation should take into account family size and structure family assets and the cost of relocation.     

How robust is the environmental impact assessment process in South Australia? Behind the scenes of the Adelaide seawater desalination project

This work tests the robustness of policies and procedures designed to protect South Australia's marine environment through a case study of the Adelaide Desalination Plant—the most expensive (∼A$1.8 billion) infrastructure project in South Australia's history. Although this project has been subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)—the highest level of assessment in Australia—on inspection it appears that the current operating licence for the desalination brine discharge breaches Government approval conditions and ignores the collective expert scientific advice of the project's Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Hence, the EIA process in South Australia for this project is flawed. Improvements could be made to the South Australian system by including the requirements for operating licences as an integral part of the EIA.     

Environmental management frameworks for offshore mining: the New Zealand approach

The New Zealand region contains untapped natural mineral, oil, and gas resources while also supporting globally unique and diverse faunal communities that need to be managed sustainably. In this paper key information from the international literature is reviewed that can underpin an Environmental Mining Management System which includes elements of Environmental Risk Assessment, Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Management Planning. This paper focuses on four developing areas of seafloor mining activities presently being undertaken or planned in the New Zealand region: hydrocarbons (oil and gas), minerals, ironsands and phosphorite nodules. A number of issues with the implementation of environmental management systems are identified including the difficulty of assessing new marine activities or technologies and the need for standardised reporting metrics. Finally, the development of ecosystem-based management and marine spatial planning is discussed which will be required to enhance environmental mining management frameworks in New Zealand.     

A primer for the Environmental Impact Assessment of mining at seafloor massive sulfide deposits

Seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) contain commercially viable quantities of high grade ores, making them attractive prospect sites for marine mining. SMS deposits may also contain hydrothermal vent ecosystems populated by high conservation value vent-endemic species. Responsible environmental management of these resources is best achieved by the adoption of a precautionary approach. Part of this precautionary approach involves the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of exploration and exploitative activities at SMS deposits. The VentBase 2012 workshop provided a forum for stakeholders and scientists to discuss issues surrounding SMS exploration and exploitation. This forum recognised the requirement for a primer which would relate concepts underpinning EIA at SMS deposits. The purpose of this primer is to inform policy makers about EIA at SMS deposits in order to aid management decisions. The primer offers a basic introduction to SMS deposits and their associated ecology, and the basic requirements for EIA at SMS deposits; including initial data and information scoping, environmental survey, and ecological risk assessment.     

Coastal resort development in Malaysia: A review of policy use in the pre-construction and post-construction phase

Tourism is a major source of income in Malaysia, and coastal development for tourism is greatly encouraged. This study reviews the policies that affect the development of coastal resorts, hotels and tourism-related infrastructure in Malaysia from the pre-construction phase to the post-construction operational phase. Problems in coastal protection policies have deep roots including a lack of public support and awareness for environmental issues, inadequate governmental agency coordination and lack of funding which is necessary for successful implementation. A review of studies assessing the usefulness of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) in Malaysia was conducted to determine whether potential impacts were well understood prior to starting development, and highlighted the issue of poor Environmental Management Plans during the operations phase of most coastal resorts. At the current level of fiscal, governmental and public support it is difficult to enforce policies aimed at minimizing environmental impacts from coastal resort developers.     

A current Environmental Impact Assessment of a port in Thailand: Marine physical aspects

This paper presents the current Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) system for Thailand. The steps of the EIA approval and procedures are summarized. More particularly, the study focuses on port developments. Guidelines, prepared by the national authority, are presented that help EIA practitioners to prepare EIA reports for port projects. The EIA for the Ranong port in Thailand was selected as a case study because of its recent approval as well as its reflection on political intervention. Special attention was given to marine physical aspects in order to demonstrate types of marine physical concerns, assessment methods used, and corresponding environmental measures established. Changes in water current and elevation, sedimentation, large waves and bank erosion, maritime accidents and related oil spill were included. Finally, the strengths and weaknesses of Thailand’s EIA system were discussed.     

Aligning public participation with local environmental knowledge in complex marine social-ecological systems

The incorporation of local and traditional knowledges into environmental governance regimes is increasingly recognised as a critical component of effective and equitable conservation efforts. However, there remain significant barriers to integration of community-based knowledge within mainstream environmental governance. This paper explores community-based knowledge in the context of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), a widely-used governance tool designed to predict and manage the impacts of development. Drawing on a social survey and interviews, the paper documents local community knowledge of environmental changes associated with dredging and the construction of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plants in a large industrial harbour located in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, and compares this knowledge with public consultation opportunities offered throughout the project lifecycle, including during assessment and after project approval. The findings highlight a misalignment between community knowledge of environmental change, which is acquired largely after impacts become apparent, and the public participation opportunities afforded through EIA, which generally occur before construction or dredging is undertaken.     

The environmental management of shipping

The environmental management of shipping requires systematic consideration of the geography of shipping routes, ship types and cargoes, and environments which can form the basis of a classificatory approach to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Beyond this, effective environmental management depends in the first instance upon sound information management including monitoring of the environment, surveillance of shipping and information technology, followed by information assessment including, in particular, risk and environmental impact. The general management dimension includes co-ordination of technical management and organisational aspects related to shipping. It is suggested that effective environmental management of shipping may depend upon a regionalisation of the marine environment for EIA purposes akin to that found in the loadline rules, together with rationalisation of the increasing number of special areas in existence or proposed for this purpose. EIA will have to become an integral part of the overall management system in the shipping industry.     

Biostratigraphic Analysis of the Top Layer of Sediment Cores from the Reference and Test Sites of the INDEX Area

Radiolarian fossil study in the sediment cores collected during the pre- and postdisturbance cruises of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Indian Ocean Experiment (INDEX) program of deep sea mining in the Central Indian Ocean Basin suggests a pronounced directional deposition of fossil radiolarians exhumed during the deep sea benthic disturbance experiment. The relative occurrences of the Stylatractus universus species that became extinct ~0.425 million years before present were mostly confined to the older and deeper strata of the sediment of the disturbance tract in the southwestern direction. This pattern is remarkable and suggests that the disturbance plume has been preferentially redeposited in the southwestern direction. This observation is in concurrence with the prevailing southwestern abyssal current during the disturbance experiment in the Central Indian Basin.     

Seabed mining: International Seabed Authority environmental management plan for the Clarion–Clipperton Zone. A partnership approach

In 2012 the International Seabed Authority approved an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the Clarion–Clipperton Fracture Zone CCZ in the Eastern Central Pacific. The EMP is a proactive spatial management strategy that anticipates mining of polymetallic nodules and that includes the designation of Areas of Particular Environmental Interest (APEIs). The implementation of the EMP and the sound application of marine spatial planning require sufficient high-quality data to inform decision-makers and draw credible boundaries of protected areas. This paper outlines the development of the EMP in the context of the Authority׳s responsibilities with respect to the protection of the marine environment. The paper further highlights needs for research and data collection and introduces a related EU research project aiming to inform the development of mining guidelines. The authors suggest that the sustainable development of deep sea resources in the CCZ could be considered as a model for blue growth.     

国家管辖范围以外区域环境影响评价的筛选机制研究

国家管辖范围以外区域(Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction,ABNJ)海洋生物多样性养护与可持续利用问题是当前国际社会共同关注的一个焦点。联合国大会2015年通过关于BBNJ(Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction)养护和可持续利用问题的69/292号决议,决定在《联合国海洋法公约》框架下制定具有法律约束力的新协定(BBNJ国际协议)。环境影响评价是BBNJ国际协议的重要组成部分。对ABNJ当前主要的人类活动以及现有环境管理机制进行梳理,结合国际层面和区域组织的环境影响评价框架以及主要国家的环境影响评价实践,对ABNJ主要人类活动的环境影响评价筛选机制进行研究,着重分析以“重大不利影响”作为环境影响评价的启动门槛的正当性;并从项目的选址、项目特征和项目影响这3个主要因素出发,阐明适用于ABNJ的环境影响评价筛选标准;最后,基于不同类型活动的综合分析,就ABNJ环境影响评价的适用活动范围进行初步探讨,并尝试为ABNJ环境影响评价适用的活动清单提出方案设想。     

Biostratigraphic Analysis of the Top Layer of Sediment Cores from the Reference and Test Sites of the INDEX Area

Abstract

Radiolarian fossil study in the sediment cores collected during the pre- and postdisturbance cruises of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Indian Ocean Experiment (INDEX) program of deep sea mining in the Central Indian Ocean Basin suggests a pronounced directional deposition of fossil radiolarians exhumed during the deep sea benthic disturbance experiment. The relative occurrences of the Stylatractus universus species that became extinct ～0.425 million years before present were mostly confined to the older and deeper strata of the sediment of the disturbance tract in the southwestern direction. This pattern is remarkable and suggests that the disturbance plume has been preferentially redeposited in the southwestern direction. This observation is in concurrence with the prevailing southwestern abyssal current during the disturbance experiment in the Central Indian Basin.     

The coast of Mexico: approaches for its management

The Mexican coast can be regionalized according to the main economic activities performed in it; for the purpose of this work we are considering five regions: North Pacific, Mar de Cortes, outh Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean. According to the national census, the population of the coastal zone in Mexico is increasing at a higher rate than the national average. The main industries located in the coastal and marine zones are oil and gas, fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, maritime transportation and ports, chemical industries, and minerals. Mexico has developed an environmental legal framework based on the Ley General del Equilibrio Ecologico y la Proteccion al Ambiente (LGEEPA), and the coastal management paradigm is strengthened through several other legal tools developed specifically for this purpose. There are three management strategies identified in this work for the coastal zone in Mexico: (1) Agency Leadership, (2) Protected Areas, and (3) Land Ordinance. Each one of these strategies includes stages for eventually developing an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan that considers vertical and horizontal integration, scientific research of natural resources and ecosystems, and socioeconomic issues.     

Guidelines for EIA of fish and shrimp hatcheries in a semi-enclosed water body

Natural fisheries in most parts of the world are under pressure due to heavy fishing activities and pollution threats. The establishment of fish and shrimp hatcheries using native species provides an opportunity for replenishment of fish and shrimp stocks in an environmentally responsible manner. This paper provides guidelines for conducting an EIA of fish and shrimp hatcheries in a semi-enclosed water body, such as the Arabian Gulf and Red Sea. The purpose of the guidelines is to outline issues that may be relevant to the design and construction of hatcheries and to identify important factors for consideration in an EIA study. Effective consultations and technical discussions during the design stage with project proponent and relevant government agencies are recommended. Early evaluation of alternative sites and consideration of environmental factors in ascertaining the suitability of intended project site can help minimize potential impacts. Aspects to be considered in depth include impacts on water quality, sediment and habitat loss. The paper also provides suggested mitigation measures for minimizing potential impacts along with key elements to be considered in the development of an adequate Environmental Management and Monitoring Plan.     

On the measurement of socioeconomic benefits of integrated coastal management (ICM): Application to Xiamen,China

We develop a systematic approach for the measurement of overall socioeconomic benefits associated with an integrated coastal management (ICM) program. The analytical framework includes multiple marine industry sectors (e.g., ocean shipping and commercial fisheries) as well as environmental sectors (e.g., coastal erosion). The net benefit measure captures both economic and environmental effects. We apply our analytical model to Xiamen, China, using empirical data from 1992 to 2001. Results of the case study show that the implementation of ICM program in Xiamen has led to a significant increase (over 40%) in annual socioeconomic benefit from its marine sectors. Thus, the Xiamen ICM program has been effective in achieving sustainable development.     

我国近岸海域污染防治对策研究

随着沿海经济的迅猛发展,我国近岸海域污染日益严重,成为影响我国海洋生态文明建设的主要问题之一。文章在全面分析我国近岸海域生态环境状况和存在的主要生态环境问题的基础上,提出以下对策建议:我国近岸海域污染防治应加强陆海统筹,切实削减氮磷入海总量;严格控制填海工程,坚决遏制滨海湿地丧失的势头;围绕关键海洋关键生态过程,实施生态恢复修复工程;加强海洋灾害风险管控,有效预防海洋环境灾害发生;加强海洋生态环境监测,为我国近岸海域的可持续发展提供保障。     

Terms of reference towards an integrated management policy in the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean

The ecological and socioeconomic importance of the Mexican coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean is analyzed and its main problems of pollution and environmental impact are described. Also, the legal, institutional, and technical framework that is applied to the coastal management of the region is analyzed. Finally, the definition and implementation of a Program of Integrated Management for the Coastal Zone of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, a Law for the Coastal Zone of the country, and adjustments to the main instruments of national environmental policy applied to the coastal zone of the region are proposed.     

The ACIA,climate change and fisheries

The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) is a project of the intergovernmental Arctic Council, intended to synthesize knowledge of the effects of climate change on the Arctic. This paper is based on the primary output of the ACIA project, a 1042 page book entitled Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Our concern is with the effects of Arctic climate change on fisheries. To set the stage, however, we first discuss those chapters that logically precede the fisheries discussion, the chapters concerned with past and present climate change, climate modeling and marine systems. The conclusion notes that moderate climate warming will probably benefit most Arctic fisheries. The conclusion also considers the role of anthropogenic causation in climate change and its policy implications.