Evaporation and radiation heat balance at the soil surface

Summary Evaporation from an area covered with short clover-grass has been determined by means of evapotranspirometers (4 m²), open (12 m²) and screened (1/3 m²) evaporimeters, and it has been estimated on the basis ofPenman's andThornthwaite's theories, too. The results of the measurements with the various instruments are compared with each other and with the results derived from the cited theories.Further, radiation heat balances have been made, including evaporation and heating of soil and atmosphere.

---

Zusammenfassung Die Verdunstung über einer mit kurzem Kleegras bedeckten Fläche wurde mittels Evapotranspirometern (4 m²), offenen (12 m²) und abgeschirmten (1/3 m²) Evaporimetern gemessen und auch auf Grund vonPenmans undThornthwaites Theorien berechnet. Die Meßergebnisse der verschiedenen Instrumente werden untereinander verglichen und auch den mittels der angeführten Theorien abgeleiteten Resultaten gegenübergestellt.Weiters wurde eine Strahlungs-Wärme-Bilanz aufgestellt, die auch die Verdunstung und die Erwärmung von Boden und Atmosphäre berücksichtigt.

---

Résumé On a mesuré l'évaporation sur une surface recouverte de trèfle court à l'aide d'évapotranspiromètres (4 m²) et d'évaporimètres ouverts (12 m²) et protégés (1/3 m²); les résultats de mesures, furent comparés entre eux et avec la théorie dePenman etThornthwaite.Puis on a dressé un bilan radiatif tenant compte, de l'évaporation et du réchauffement du sol et de l'atmosphère.

---

---

With 8 Figures     

南极瑞穗站雪面热量平衡特征

利用南极瑞穗站(日本)1979年近地面层微气象资料及净辐射、本站气压等资料进行了统计分析。采用鲍文比-能量平衡法求得月平均感热通量和潜热通量,采用热含法计算得出月平均雪面热通量,使用了直接测量的净辐射通量,研究了该站雪面热量平均特征。其中突出的特征是3—12月雪面净辐射值为负值,主要靠感热通量由大气向雪面补充热量。将本文结果与苏联少先队站1956年的结果进行了比较,得出相当一致的年变化规律。最后,得出瑞穗站雪面为一强冷源。     

Treatment of frozen soil and snow cover in the land surface model SEWAB

Summary  The land surface model SEWAB (Surface Energy and Water Balance) is designed to be coupled to both, atmospheric and hydrological models. Its application in mid and high latitudes requires the inclusion of freezing and thawing processes within the soil and the accumulation and ablation of a snow cover. These winter processes are parameterised with a minimum number of empirical formulations in order to assure reasonable computation times for an application in climate and sensitivity studies yet accounting for all important processes. Meteorological forcing data and measurements of snow depth, soil temperature and liquid soil water content at two locations in the mid-west of North America are used to test the model. Generally the simulated snow depth matches the measurements, remaining differences in snow depth can be explained by uncertainties in snow density, blowing snow and errors in precipitation measurements. The simulated soil temperature and liquid soil water content compare well with the measurements, showing the isolating effect of the snow cover. Received August 25, 2000 Revised January 19, 2001     

东亚地区的地表面辐射平衡、热量平衡及冷热源问题的研究

本文是<我国辐射平衡、热量平衡及水分平衡的研究>工作中的一部份。根据我国七十多个日射台站1974年前的全部实测资料,推求出适合于我国实际情况的计算方法。计算了我国300多个台站的太阳辐射各分量(直达辐射、散射、辐射、总辐射)数值。同时设计了计算理论公式的计算图,求得了这些台站的有效辐射量,从而得到我国辐射平衡及其各分量。又根据我国六个台站热量平衡观测资料,得到土壤热交换量与气温变化的关系,确定了土壤热交换量。并采用和计算了与我国邻近的国外几十个台站辐射平衡各分量及研究成果。最后分析了东亚地区的辐射平衡、热量平衡及冷热源的时空分布。     

The surface energy balance of a snow cover: comparing measurements to two differentsimulation models

Summary  We compared two one-dimensional simulation models for heat and water fluxes in the soil-snow-atmosphere system with respect to their mathematical formulations of the surface heat exchange and the snow pack evolution. They were chosen as examples of a simple one-layer snow model and a more detailed multiple-layer snow model (SNTHERM). The snow models were combined with the same one-dimensional model for the heat and water balance of the underlying soil (CoupModel). Data from an arable field in central Sweden (Marsta), covering two years (1997–1999) of soil temperature, snow depth and eddy-correlation measurements were successfully compared with the models. Conditions with a snow pack deeper or shallower than 10 cm and bare soil resulted in similar discrepancies. The simulated net radiation and sensible heat flux were in good agreement with that measured during snow-covered periods, except for situations with snowmelt when the downward sensible heat flux was overestimated by 10–20 Wm⁻². The results showed that the uncertainties in parameter values were more important than the model formulation and that both models were useful in evaluating the limitations and uncertainties of the measurements. Received November 1, 1999 Revised April 20, 2000     

Rapid vegetation responses and feedbacks amplify climate model response to snow cover changes

We investigate the response of a climate system model to two different methods for estimating snow cover fraction. In the control case, snow cover fraction changes gradually with snow depth; in the alternative scenarios (one with prescribed vegetation and one with dynamic vegetation), snow cover fraction initially increases with snow depth almost twice as fast as the control method. In cases where the vegetation was fixed (prescribed), the choice of snow cover parameterization resulted in a limited model response. Increased albedo associated with the high snow caused some moderate localized cooling (3–5°C), mostly at very high latitudes (>70°N) and during the spring season. During the other seasons, however, the cooling was not very extensive. With dynamic vegetation the change is much more dramatic. The initial increases in snow cover fraction with the new parameterization lead to a large-scale southward retreat of boreal vegetation, widespread cooling, and persistent snow cover over much of the boreal region during the boreal summer. Large cold anomalies of up to 15°C cover much of northern Eurasia and North America and the cooling is geographically extensive in the northern hemisphere extratropics, especially during the spring and summer seasons. This study demonstrates the potential for dynamic vegetation within climate models to be quite sensitive to modest forcing. This highlights the importance of dynamic vegetation, both as an amplifier of feedbacks in the climate system and as an essential consideration when implementing adjustments to existing model parameters and algorithms.     

基于WRF模式输出统计的逐时太阳总辐射预报初探

基于WRF(weather research and forecasting model)模式逐时输出结果,设计了逐时太阳总辐射的模式输出统计(model output statistics,MOS)预报流程。主要包括:对逐时观测序列进行低通滤波再除以天文辐射,对模式输出因子的筛选和降维,以及建立MOS预报方程,并对2009年1月、4月、8月和10月武汉站逐时太阳总辐射进行预报试验。结果表明,该方案在各月预报相对稳定,拟合和预报效果均较为理想,可使平均绝对百分比误差控制在20%～30%,相对均方根误差控制在30%～40%,相对模式直接预报辐射改进了50%左右。由此可见,通过对模式输出进行解释应用,可以有效提高辐射预报的准确率。此外,客观分析所得的气温、云量、露点、比湿、相对湿度、地面气压等13个模式输出因子可以作为各地区建立MOS辐射预报方程的参考因子。     

Influence of horizontal inhomogeneity on albedo and absorptivity of snow cover

The variations of albedo and absorptivity of the snow cover are considered caused by the presence of the snow roughness in the form of sastrugi. The numerical modeling is carried out within the framework of statistical approach based on the analytic averaging of the radiative transfer equation and statistically homogeneous model on the basis of Poisson flows of points at the straight lines. The estimates of the influence of 3D-effects of the rough surface are represented depending on optical and geometrical characteristics of sastrugi and on the illumination conditions. It is demonstrated that if the absorption by the snow particles is weak (the single scattering albedo w = 0.9999) the reflection of radiation by snow decreases by ∼ 2–3% when the sastrugi appear. This effect is more significant in near infrared spectral region where w is below 0.99.     

青藏高原地区积雪及其变化的不确定性:3种积雪观测资料的对比分析

为了探究青藏高原积雪不同观测资料间的差异,本文通过定义积雪覆盖率(Snow Cover Percentage,SCP)对比了NOAA-CDR卫星可见光遥感积雪资料、卫星被动微波遥感积雪资料和我国146个台站观测的积雪资料在高原地区的气候态及年际变动特征。从年平均气候态看,微波与可见光资料的SCP分布较为接近,高值区均位于念青唐古拉山与喜马拉雅山南缘之间的山区。而台站资料SCP的高值区范围则相对较小,在高原东部的巴颜喀拉山及南部的念青唐古拉山。3种资料的积雪低值区均位于高原中南部沿雅鲁藏布江一带、阿尔金山北侧以及东边界的内陆省份。从季节平均场看,不同资料的积雪分布在冬季及秋季,无论是气候态还是年际变动均较为类似。在春季时,微波和台站资料间较为一致。而在夏季,资料间差异很大,不同资料间的两两相关接近于零,甚至为负数。本文同时选取了青藏高原地区4个典型台站(索县、清水河、康定、甘孜),将卫星资料插值于台站上,对比3种资料间的异同,以及与地表气温异常间的关系。结果表明,在这4个典型站上,台站SCP在过去36 a中为线性减少的趋势,而卫星SCP主要为线性增加的趋势,且台站年平均SCP与地表气温异常的协同性最好。     

青藏高原积雪异常对高原地面加热的影响

On the basis of snow data and AWS (Automatic Weather Station) data obtained from the Tibetan Plateau in recent years (1993 to 1999), the features of sensible heat, latent heat and net long-wave radiations are estimated, and their variations in more-snow year (1997/1998) and less-snow year (1996/1997) are analyzed comparatively. The relationships between snow cover of the Tibetan Plateau and plateau＇s surface heating to the atmospheric heating are also discussed. The difference between more-snow and less-snow year in spring is remarkably larger than that in winter. Therefore, the effect of anomalous snow cover of the Tibetan Plateau in winter on the plateau heating appears more clearly in the following spring of anomalous snow cover.     

Projection of snow cover changes over China under RCP scenarios

Snow cover changes in the middle (2040–2059) and end (2080–2099) of the twenty-first century over China were investigated with a regional climate model, nested within the global model BCC_CSM1.1. The simulations had been conducted for the period of 1950–2099 under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. Results show that the model perform well in representing contemporary (1986–2005) spatial distributions of snow cover days (SCDs) and snow water equivalent (SWE). However, some differences between observation and simulation were detected. Under the RCP4.5 scenarios, SCDs are shortened by 10–20 and 20–40 days during the middle and end of the twenty-first century, respectively. Whereas simulated SWE is lowered by 0.1–10 mm in most areas over the Tibetan Plateau (TP). On the other hand, the spatial distributions of SWE are reversed between the middle and end terms in the northeast China. Furthermore, compared with the changes of RCP4.5 scenario, SCDs are reduced by 5–20 days in the middle period under RCP8.5 scenario with even larger decreasing amplitude in the end term. SWE was lowered by 0.1–2.5 mm in most areas except the northeast of China in middle term under RCP8.5 scenario. The great center of SCDs and SWE changes are always located over TP. The regional mean of SCDs and SWE for the TP and for China display a declining trend from 2006 to 2099 with more pronounced changes in the TP than in China as a whole. Under the RCP8.5 scenario, the changes are enhanced compared to those under RCP4.5.     

The thermoinsulation effect of snow cover within a climate model

We use a state of the art climate model (CAM3–CLM3) to investigate the sensitivity of surface climate and land surface processes to treatments of snow thermal conductivity. In the first set of experiments, the thermal conductivity of snow at each grid cell is set to that of the underlying soil (SC-SOIL), effectively eliminating any insulation effect. This scenario is compared against a control run (CTRL), where snow thermal conductivity is determined as a prognostic function of snow density. In the second set of experiments, high (SC-HI) and low (SC-LO) thermal conductivity values for snow are prescribed, based on upper and lower observed limits. These two scenarios are used to envelop model sensitivity to the range of realistic observed thermal conductivities. In both sets of experiments, the high conductivity/low insulation cases show increased heat exchange, with anomalous heat fluxes from the soil to the atmosphere during the winter and from the atmosphere to the soil during the summer. The increase in surface heat exchange leads to soil cooling of up to 20 K in the winter, anomalies that persist (though damped) into the summer season. The heat exchange also drives an asymmetric seasonal response in near-surface air temperatures, with boreal winter anomalies of +6 K and boreal summer anomalies of −2 K. On an annual basis there is a net loss of heat from the soil and increases in ground ice, leading to reductions in infiltration, evapotranspiration, and photosynthesis. Our results show land surface processes and the surface climate within CAM3–CLM3 are sensitive to the treatment of snow thermal conductivity.     

基于WRF模式的京津冀地区地表大气CO2浓度的模拟研究

在“双碳”目标背景下,从国家层面到地方层面,区域、城市、行业企业都在制定和实施双碳目标行动计划。CO₂模拟因其客观性和高时空分辨率等优势,在城市碳排放研究中深受重视。本研究以京津冀地区为研究区域,采用Picarro仪器高精度观测的2019—2020年CO₂数据,利用WRF模式进行CO₂传输模拟,分析了CO₂浓度变化的季节特征,评估了模式在城区中心、城郊及背景3个观测站点的模拟效果,并对边界层高度及化石燃料碳排放等可能影响CO₂浓度的因素进行了研究。3个观测站点分别为北京中国科学院大气物理研究所325 m气象塔观测站(北京站)、河北香河观测站(香河站)和上甸子区域本底观测站(上甸子站)。模拟结果表明：上甸子站优于香河站,香河站优于北京站,在冬季尤其明显;CO₂浓度的高值区主要分布在城区、电厂和工业区,尤其是唐山、石家庄和邯郸地区,大量交通、工业排放导致CO₂浓度明显上升,且高值区的范围在冬季最大;就日平均变化和日变化而言,边界层高度与C...     

Evaluation of Snow Depth and Snow Cover Fraction Simulated by Two Versions of the Flexible Global Ocean–Atmosphere–Land System Model简

Based on historical runs,one of the core experiments of the fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project （CMIP5）,the snow depth （SD） and snow cover fraction （SCF） simulated by two versions of the Flexible Global OceanAtmosphere-Land System （FGOALS） model,Grid-point Version 2 （g2） and Spectral Version 2 （s2）,were validated against observational data.The results revealed that the spatial pattern of SD and SCF over the Northern Hemisphere （NH） are simulated well by both models,except over the Tibetan Plateau,with the average spatial correlation coefficient over all months being around 0.7 and 0.8 for SD and SCF,respectively.Although the onset of snow accumulation is captured wellby the two models in terms of the annual cycle of SD and SCF,g2 overestimates SD/SCF over most mid-and high-latitude areas of the NH.Analysis showed that g2 produces lower temperatures than s2 because it considers the indirect effects of aerosols in its atmospheric component,which is the primary driver for the SD/SCF difference between the two models.In addition,both models simulate the significant decreasing trend of SCF well over （30°-70°N） in winter during the period 1971-94.However,as g2 has a weak response to an increase in the concentration of CO2 and lower climate sensitivity,it presents weaker interannual variation compared to s2.     

WRF/NCAR模拟的夏季长三角城市群区域多城市热岛和地表能量平衡

利用一个包含城市冠层效应的区域模式(WRF/NCAR),对长三角特大城市群的夏季气候效应进行了5 a(2003—2007年)高分辨数值模拟,通过长三角地区有无城市的对比试验分析,重点分析了城市群所造成的多城市热岛和地表能量平衡及其日变化特征。结果表明:城市化会导致显著的地表升温,但昼夜不同的升温幅度造成城市地表温度日较差的降低,以及部分郊区日较差增加;城市化也减小城市近地面风速,但沿海城市升温造成的热力差异,增大白天的海风并降低夜间的陆风。同时大范围城市群的热岛能够显著降低低层气压,导致部分海面风速持续的增加;城市下垫面具有很小的潜热通量,但感热通量和热存储量较大,白天的热岛逐渐增加,并在日落前达到最大,夜间热岛基本维持,但在日出前后迅速减弱;较大的入射短波辐射、较小的向下长波辐射和较低的10 m风速能够减弱白天的热岛,而增强夜间的热岛,并且使热岛峰值从17时延后至20时出现;反之亦然。     

Seasonal cycle of snow cover changes in Eastern Siberia and its synoptic preconditions

The seasonal cycle of snow cover in Eastern Siberia is characterized, and synoptic preconditions of snow accumulation in winter and snow ablation in spring are determined using daily datasets. It was ascertained that cyclone activity has a strong impact on the occurrence of abundant snowfalls in Eastern Siberia. Negative anomalies of sea level pressure (SLP) usually spread westward or southwestward from the place of recorded substantial snowfalls, and they are associated with positive anomalies of air temperature located to the east or northeast of SLP depressions. Cyclonic circulation causes inflow of relatively warm and humid southern air masses originating from the Pacific Ocean, to the eastern parts of cyclones. During the days with snow ablation in spring much lower SLP anomalies occur than during snow accumulation in winter. This may suggest smaller influence of air circulation on snow cover reduction in spring and higher impact of insolation; both result in strong positive anomalies of air temperature which extend over entire Asia. These findings imply that the position, intensity, and dimension of pressure patterns are crucial for determining the location and intensity of rapid changes in snow cover depth during the snow cover season in Eastern Siberia.     

Impact of clouds on the surface radiation balance of the Arctic Ocean

Summary The relationship between clouds and the surface radiative fluxes over the Arctic Ocean are explored by conducting a series of modelling experiments using a one-dimensional thermodynamic sea ice model. The sensitivity of radiative flux to perturbations in cloud fraction and cloud optical depth are determined. These experiments illustrate the substantial effect that clouds have on the state of the sea ice and on the surface radiative fluxes. The effect of clouds on the net flux of radiation at the surface is very complex over the Arctic Ocean particularly due to the presence of the underlying sea ice. Owing to changes in surface albedo and temperature associated with changing cloud properties, there is a strong non-linearity between cloud properties and surface radiative fluxes. The model results are evaluated in three different contexts: 1) the sensitivity of the arctic surface radiation balance to uncertainties in cloud properties; 2) the impact of interannual variability in cloud characteristics on surface radiation fluxes and sea ice surface characteristics; and 3) the impact of climate change and the resulting changes in cloud properties on the surface radiation fluxes and sea ice characteristics.With 11 Figures