The impact of severe natural disasters on the livelihoods of farmers in mountainous areas: a case study of Qingping Township,Mianzhu City

The ‘5.12’ earthquake in 2008 and the ‘8.13’ debris flow in 2010 brought huge losses of life and property to Qingping Township. Farmers’ livelihoods assets were also seriously affected and damaged. These led to a change in farmers’ livelihood styles and reduction in their income. A study of the impact of natural disasters on farmers’ livelihoods in mountainous areas would have significant importance for policy making. Based on field survey data from sample households, this study comparatively analyzed the assets, livelihood styles and income of farmers over three periods—2007, 2009 after the ‘5.12’ earthquake, and 2 months after ‘8.13’ debris flows. It presents the following findings: (1) livelihood assets suffered heavy losses; (2) livelihood styles were significantly changed; and (3) the sustainability of farmer income was adversely influenced. These results suggest that, during the process of post-disaster reconstruction work, affected farmers’ security, the carrying capacity of livelihood assets, and the enhancement of employment and livelihood choice are worthy of much attention from policy makers.     

Study on indirect economic impacts and their causes of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

In terms of events that undermine economic growth, the impact of natural disasters is huge and inevitable. Taking the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake as the research object, and based on the country-year data for 181 counties in Sichuan Province from 1999 to 2018, this paper uses the dynamic difference-in-difference method to investigate the indirect impact of this event on the economy. The main findings are as follows: Even though the central government has introduced reconstruction policies and invested a lot of reconstruction funds, in 2018, the per capita income in the extremely and relatively severe disaster areas was still significantly lower than the counterfactual by 21.96% and 7.61%, respectively. There is heterogeneity in the long-term indirect impacts in areas with different disaster levels, and the economies of the extremely severe disaster areas may form a "poverty trap," while the economies of the relatively severe disaster areas are still in a slow recovery state. It was further found that the assistance of central government’s reconstruction funds and the increase in local government expenditure are the reasons for the rapid economic recovery in the short term, and the insufficient level of total demand caused by the investment and consumption is the main reasons for the negative indirect impact on the economy in the disaster areas.

     

Earthquake characteristics and building damage in high-intensity areas of Wenchuan earthquake I: Yingxiu town

On May 12, 2008, an Ms 8.0 earthquake occurred on the Longmen Mountain Fault in Wenchuan County, Sichuan Province, China. Based on the reported earthquake intensity and surface displacement distributions in the affected areas, the damages to buildings in high-intensity areas were investigated. This paper focused on the buildings in Yingxiu Town, Wenchuan County. The unreasonable structural design and structural type were found to be the main reason for the damages of buildings. The geological environment problems of the residential area were also discussed. This research would provide valuable reference for scientific earthquake-resistance design and reconstruction after earthquake disaster.     

汶川8级地震地质灾害的类型及实例

龙门山地区活动断裂右旋斜冲运动与汶川8级强烈地震存在成因联系。汶川8级地震造成了惨重的人员伤亡和巨大的财产损失,地震地质灾害主要类型有地震灾害、地震触发地质灾害和地震引发地质灾害隐患。严重地震灾害包括房屋倒塌与部分坍塌、房屋平移、房屋倾斜变形、墙体破裂与结构破坏、桥梁垮塌等。地震触发严重地质灾害包括山体滑坡、山体滑塌、岩块崩塌,局部产生泥石流与沙土液化。地震引发地质灾害隐患包括潜在滑坡、不稳定边坡与滑塌隐患、危岩体与崩塌隐患及泥石流灾害隐患。地震地质灾害分布与活动断层存在密切关系,沿北川映秀断裂地震地质灾害最为严重,沿汉旺漩口断裂、茂县汶川断裂、青川断裂地震地质灾害也比较严重。在活动断裂之间相对稳定地块远离活动断裂超过3~5 km,地震灾害和地震触发地质灾害显著减轻。     

龙门山中央断裂北川－邓家一带古地震初步研究

龙门山断裂带是否存在类似汶川5.12大地震的地质记录,是地震科学工作者所关注的科学问题之一。处于中央断裂带中段和北段分界地区的北川－邓家一带,古地震研究对认识整个龙门山断裂带的大地震复发特征有重要意义。沿北川－邓家地震地表破裂带,可能有过早期活动,并兼顾是否有较多细粒第四纪沉积物,以便能较清晰地分析、判断古地震事件以及采集测年样品,所以我们在沙坝1组、和尚坪和邓家海光6组等3个地点开挖了4个探槽,并进行了断错地貌的实测,发现了该地区明显的古地震遗迹,以及该地区特殊的正断层地表破裂样式。通过探槽和实测地貌情况与前人在龙门山中央和前山断裂带的古地震研究结果的对比分析,结果显示该地区至少发生过两次地震事件(包括5.12地震事件在内),与龙门山中央和前山断裂大部分地点已揭露的古地震事件相吻合。而通过对该地区地貌侵蚀特征与地震陡坎的高度变化分析,可以得出该地区之前的地震事件与5.12地震的大小相近。     

汶川地震深层地下水位临震异常

针对短临地震预报难尤其是临震预报难问题,以2008年汶川地震为背景,对受地震影响严重的川、滇、陕、甘、渝5个省市区域内的深层地下水位进行了分析,发现在龙门山断裂带所在的四川省及其NE方向的甘肃省区域,共有7口井水位表现为明显的临震异常,异常形态包括振荡型、脉冲型和阶升型。利用小波变换方法对振荡型及脉冲型异常进行分析,结果表明:临夏、古浪横梁和清水等井水位信号中存在着周期为2～8 min,振幅为5～59 mm的前驱波波形,这是由于震源体慢破裂过程中发出的地震波造成的。阶升型异常幅度较大,分别为129.4 cm和340.8 cm,从震前几分钟一直持续到震后,未恢复到震前状态;表明引起震时地下水剧烈变化的动力作用在震前已经开始,震时变化只是在此基础上进一步发展与加剧。     

International Comparisons of Large-scale Natural Disasters Damage and Loss Assessment: Based on “Statistical System of Large-scale Natural Disasters” and PDNA

In June 2014, the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the National Disaster Reduction Committee Office issued the “Statistical System of Large-scale Natural Disasters Damage and Loss” (SSLNDD&L), in which the standard statistical content and index were explored. Examined by several major natural disasters in recent years, such as Ludian earthquake (Ms 6.5) on 3 August 2014, Nepal earthquake (Ms 8.1) on 25 April 2015, SSLNDD&L provided good basis for post disaster recovery and reconstruction planning, but the direct guidance of reconstruction planning was still limited. Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA), the mainstream of the international disaster needs assessment system, was taken as the main research object, and the content and characteristics of PDNA system were analyzed in detail. The comparison analysis was made from the objectives, contents and index system, evaluation methodology, evaluation parameters between the SSLNDD&L and PDNA. In the future, expanding and increasing various industries and local evaluation index focusing on recovery and reconstruction needs, optimizing the disaster assessment parameter database used for the multi-user such as the Central-Province-County scale, supporting the preparation of technical standard optimization evaluation process to form a complete assessment technical specification should be put forward as the future development of the SSLNDD&L. It is of great practical significance to optimize and perfect the content and index of the SSLNDD&L to better serve the decision making of the recovery and reconstruction after large-scale disasters, and to achieve international standards on large-scale disaster damage & loss statistics and assessment in China.     

Monitoring and evaluation of the urban reconstruction process in Bam,Iran, after the 2003 <Emphasis Type="Italic">M</Emphasis><Subscript>w</Subscript> 6.6 earthquake

In this study, we tracked and analyzed the reconstruction process in Bam, Iran, after the city was struck by an earthquake with a M _w of 6.6 on December 26, 2003. We adopted three approaches to comprehensively assess the city’s post-earthquake reconstruction and to shed light on the progress and sustainability of disaster recovery projects. We applied the following methodology. First, we obtained official statistics and reports that included quantitative and qualitative evaluations of the reconstruction process to evaluate the overall outcome of the government’s reconstruction projects. Second, we examined photographs taken during field surveys conducted in 2004, 2007, and 2014 to assess changes within the city. Last, we analyzed three satellite images of Bam—the first taken 3 months before the earthquake, the second immediately after the earthquake, and the third 8 years after the earthquake—to assess the progress of reconstruction work and changes in land cover and land use. The results indicated that considerable progress had been made in reconstructing some of the damaged areas. However, progress was relatively slow in severely damaged areas.     

Social capital,trust, and collective action in post-earthquake Nepal

According to the first generation of theories of collective action, utility-maximizing individuals encountering conditions of nonexcludability and nonrivalry free ride rather than cooperate as their dominant strategy. But scholars have documented innumerable successful and unsuccessful collective action efforts after disasters around the world that contradict that idea. We square the findings of disaster research with the second generation of collective action research by demonstrating how important social capital is for understanding voluntary collective action. We apply structural equation modeling and mediation analysis to data we collected from Sindhupalchowk, Nepal, after its 2015 earthquake to show that bonding social capital has the mediated effect of engendering mutual trust and in turn enabling collective action. Further, we demonstrate direct effects of both bonding and bridging/linking social capital on collective action following disasters. We portray social capital as essential in enabling self-governance and fostering resilience in postdisaster scenarios in which the collective burdens of reconstruction and recovery necessitate concerted efforts on the part of the private sector, citizens, and public institutions.

     

Earthquake characteristics and building damage in high-intensity areas of Wenchuan earthquake II: Dujiangyan and Pengzhou City

On May 12, 2008, a massive earthquake occurred along the Longmen Mountain Central Fault in Sichuan Province, China, causing serious damages to buildings near the fault. As the Longmen Mountain Central Fault and the Anterior Fault both traversed Dujiangyan and Pengzhou cities, the seismic intensity in these areas reached levels IX?CXI. Therefore, these two cities were among the most seriously damaged regions. In this article, the types of damage to buildings in the two cities and their affiliated towns or villages are investigated and reported. It is found that the damage to a building is related to its structure type, distance from the faults, and so on. The results provide valuable information on the seismic resistance of buildings in similar areas.     

攀西地区重力均衡异常的研究

研究表明,康滇地轴及其东部地区属均衡补偿平衡区,西部属强烈上升的异常区。上升的原动力为板块碰撞的构造力与均衡调整力的综合。     

Meta-synthesis pattern of post-disaster recovery and reconstruction: based on actual investigation on 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

A devastating Ms8.0 earthquake struck Wenchuan on May 12, 2008, a historical county in Sichuan Province, southwest China, which affected more than half of China. This article makes a comparative study on the pre-earthquake prevention and post-earthquake reconstruction of 14 world-famous earthquakes in the last 100 years, generalizes the various problems in the process of recovery and reconstruction and analyzes the reasons for the enormous damage caused by these earthquakes. Through theoretical research and field investigation on post-Wenchuan earthquake recovery and reconstruction, the meta-synthesis pattern has been summarized and developed. Its ideological foundation is meta-synthesis methodology, concrete expression is Wuli–Shili–Renli three-dimensional approach, and practical realization using an integrated framework. Taking post-earthquake recovery and reconstruction as a complicated systematic project, from the vertical perspective, the whole process can be roughly divided into the phases of transitional recovery and comprehensive reconstruction. While from the horizontal perspective, each phase should have its own support systems. From an investigation of the systematic planning and comprehensive implementation, it can be concluded that post-Wenchuan earthquake recovery and reconstruction has made remarkable achievements over the past 3 years. Since disasters continue to threaten humanity around the world, especially climate-induced extreme weather events, other countries could formulate applicable integrated programs for post-disaster recovery and reconstruction, taking the Wenchuan experience as a reference.     

极震区岩体地震动力破坏研究体系框架初探

极震区岩体地震动力破坏是造成极震区严重的地震地质灾害和次生灾害的根本原因。汶川地震中因此而导致的交通工程结构损坏、中断和次生崩滑流、堰塞湖等地质灾害,不仅加剧了灾害损失,并给震后的灾区恢复重建和对外交通遗留了较多的安全隐患。从岩体稳定、山体稳定和区域稳定的层次,分别对有关极震区岩体地震动力破坏的主要研究成果进行了系统总结,分析了其现状和存在的问题。结合对研究思路和方法论的讨论,构建了极震区岩体地震动力破坏研究的体系框架,提出了极震区岩体地震动力破坏研究的主要内容和方向,以期明晰概念,理清思路,为有关问题的深入研究提供有益的参考。     

四川华蓥山地重力灾害类型及成因分析

从华蓥山所处的地理位置出发,全面的介绍了华蓥山地区近些年来的重力灾害发生的情况,可以看到重力灾害在本地区的影响之大,已经成为了本地区主要的灾害类型。通过各方面的调查研究,采用科学分析和经验指导相结合的方法,分析了引起重力灾害发生的各种因素,并重点从地质因素、水体因素、人为因素等3方面分析了华蓥山地重力灾害发生的成因,总结了可以引起重力灾害发生的外因和内因,可以看到重力灾害不单是某一个因素导致,而是由于众多的因素相互的影响所导致的。采取各种措施来预防灾害的发生,减少灾害给人类的生产和生活带来的危害。     

岷县漳县地震灾后重建场地黄土震害预测

通过对取自2013年岷县漳县Ms6.6地震影响区8个灾后重建安置点的黄土进行室内动、静三轴试验,研究了极震区2个灾后重建场地黄土的动、静力学特性,分析了地震影响区内3个灾后重建安置场地的黄土斜坡稳定性和5个场地黄土的震陷性;并结合安置点的地形地貌特点,对灾后重建场地潜在黄土地震地质灾害进行了预测。结果表明:极震区黄土在静力作用下具有明显的应力强化特性,在循环动荷载作用下具有刚度迅速衰减和粘滞性急剧增强的特征;MX-2和MX-3重建场地的斜坡在地震作用下存在失稳的可能;Ⅷ度以上地震作用下,MX-1、ZX-1、LT-1和LX-1场地存在产生不同破坏等级震陷灾害的风险;Ⅷ度以上地震作用下MX-1场地的黄土可产生液化,存在导致山体液化滑坡、泥流以及建构筑物地基失稳和不均匀沉降等地震灾害的风险。     

Factors affecting earthquake recovery: the Yao’an earthquake of China

Households vary in their ability to deal with disasters, and this may lead to different recovery results. Aiming to examine this differentiation, this paper studied the 2009 Yao??an earthquake in China. Surveys of 200 destroyed rural households were conducted in field investigations and follow-ups at 1?month, 1?year, and 1.5?years after the earthquake. The results showed a clear difference in recovery, the households observably being classified into five groups. These are the O group, which has different recovery time and economic cost from the other four; and the special group, comprising E _L T _O and E _O T _L (vulnerable during recovery); E _H T _O (strong during recovery); and E _L T _S (neither vulnerable nor strong). Logistic regression analysis revealed that differentiation in recovery patterns arose from the combined effect of demographic factors and external assistance provided to households. Lower income is the root cause of vulnerability in some households during the recovery process. However, other factors cause recovery differences between the two vulnerable groups, causing the economic recovery cost of the E _L T _O group to be lower, and the recovery time of the E _O T _L group to be longer. There was consensus that external assistance had an impact on all households. The more provided and the earlier it arrived, the lower the cost for recovery and the shorter the recovery time. This study shows that research on group differentiation of recovery is useful in understanding post-earthquake recovery processes and calls for taking group differentiation considerations into account in post-disaster recovery resource allocation practices.     

Modelling the economic vulnerability of households in the Phang-Nga Province (Thailand) to natural disasters

The 2004 tsunami devastated large areas in the southern part of Thailand. This paper takes a particular look at the circumstances of vulnerability and the process of recovery in the area of Khao Lak and its surrounding villages, which constitute a booming tourist hotspot at the centre of a region that is still dominated by agriculture. A quantitative vulnerability model was developed, integrating a quantitative household survey and remote sensing data. This model describes and specifies the circumstances of vulnerability and the factors leading to a recovery of the area. Indirect effects on the livelihood of households in particular, such as the disruption of infrastructure or the loss of income, show a negative effect on the recovery time. External help received by the households even shows an extending influence on the duration of their recovery period.     

5.12汶川大地震诱发大型崩滑灾害动力特征初探

5.12汶川大地震发生于地质环境条件异常脆弱的龙门山地区,加上地震震级高、释放能量大,持续时间长等特点,汶川地震不仅直接诱发了数以万计的崩滑地质灾害,且表现出非常独特的动力学特征。在对汶川地震灾区崩滑灾害进行大量调查的基础上,结合建构筑物和斜坡岩体在地震过程中的变形破坏特点,本文从地震动力学和斜坡变形破坏成因机理的角度,揭示了汶川地震诱发的大型崩滑灾害具有震裂溃屈、临空抛射和碎屑流化等独特的动力学特征,为强震诱发地质灾害成因机理研究提供了新的认识。     

晚上新世龙门山南段斜向逆冲作用和区域应力场转换

2008年汶川地震(Mw 7.9)同震滑移结果表明,今地壳缩短为近EW向,与龙门山褶皱冲断带斜交。这一斜向逆冲作用的准确起始时间一直未得到很好的约束。基于龙门山南段山前大邑背斜区三维地震解释和构造建模,结合野外地质调查和年代学数据,确定了晚新生代存在NE向和近NS向2期构造变形。120km长的NS向构造切割了NE向构造,表明近NS向构造形成时间较晚。山前大邑和邛西背斜区近NS向断层和褶皱的活动,均反映了龙门山南段局部或区域上水平最大主应力方向的转换过程,渐新世—早上新世的NW—SE向转变为晚上新世—全新世的近EW向。龙门山南段山前发育的NS向构造和汶川地震同震变形均反映出青藏高原东缘最新的EW向地壳缩短过程,为理解青藏高原东缘的隆升机制提供了新的视角。     

Groundwater overexploitation and soil subsidence monitoring on Recife plain (Brazil)

Facing natural disasters is a priority challenge for cities, exacerbated by increases in urban population and climate change. Improving the resilience of cities is a critical need for the international community and especially for territories exposed to multiple risks, such as Chile. Although disasters are always tragic, the recovery and reconstruction post-disaster may provide a unique opportunity to prevent future suffering, enhancing the resilience of local communities. This paper presents the analysis of two Chilean reconstruction programmes applied in Mehuin and Dichato, after the earthquake and tsunami of 22 May 1960 and 27 February 2010, respectively. In both cases, reconstruction programmes were supported by the Chilean Government, but using different approaches: one focused on providing housing for people injured in the earthquake, while the other also included urban amenities and services. This article proposes an urban morphology analysis framework; in addition, it presents the assessment of the two case studies before and after a disaster, thus evaluating their resilience. By comparing urban morphology resilience pre- and post-disaster, a discussion about the effectiveness of two reconstruction approaches is presented. Finally, conclusions and recommendations to better integrate resilience into urban planning are proposed, with the aim of opening the discussion about how to make cities more resilient to natural disasters.