Origin and depositional environments of source rocks and crude oils from Niger Delta Basin: Carbon isotopic evidence

Thirty-nine crude oils and twenty-one rock samples from Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria have been characterized based on their isotope compositions by elemental analysis-isotope ratio mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The bulk carbon isotopic values of the whole rock extracts, saturate and aromatic fractions range from –28.7‰ to –26.8‰, –29.2‰ to –27.2 ‰ and –28.5 ‰ to –26.7 ‰, respectively while the bulk carbon isotopic values of the whole oils, saturate and aromatic fractions range from –25.4 ‰ to –27.8 ‰, –25.9 ‰ to –28.4 ‰ and –23.5 ‰ to –26.9 ‰, respectively. The average carbon isotopic compositions of individual alkanes (nC₁₂-nC₃₃) in the rock samples range from –34.9‰ to –28.2‰ whereas the average isotopic values of individual n-alkanes in the oils range from –31.1‰ to –23.8‰. The δ¹³C isotope ratios of pristane and phytane in the rock samples range from –29.2 ‰ to –28.2 ‰ and –30.2 ‰ to –27.4 ‰ respectively while the pristane and phytane isotopic values range from –32.1‰ to –21.9‰ and –30.5‰ to –26.9‰, respectively. The isotopic values recorded for the samples indicated that the crude oils were formed from the mixed input of terrigenous and marine organic matter and deposited under oxic to sub-oxic condition in lacustrine-fluvial/deltaic environments. The stable carbon isotopic compositions were found to be effective in assessing the origin and depositional environments of crude oils in the Niger Delta Basin.     

Carbon geochemistry of serpentinites in the Lost City Hydrothermal System (30°N, MAR)

The carbon geochemistry of serpentinized peridotites and gabbroic rocks recovered at the Lost City Hydrothermal Field (LCHF) and drilled at IODP Hole 1309D at the central dome of the Atlantis Massif (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 30°N) was examined to characterize carbon sources and speciation in oceanic basement rocks affected by long-lived hydrothermal alteration. Our study presents new data on the geochemistry of organic carbon in the oceanic lithosphere and provides constraints on the fate of dissolved organic carbon in seawater during serpentinization. The basement rocks of the Atlantis Massif are characterized by total carbon (TC) contents of 59 ppm to 1.6 wt% and δ¹³C_TC values ranging from −28.7‰ to +2.3‰. In contrast, total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations and isotopic compositions are relatively constant (δ¹³C_TOC: −28.9‰ to −21.5‰) and variations in δ¹³C_TC reflect mixing of organic carbon with carbonates of marine origin. Saturated hydrocarbons extracted from serpentinites beneath the LCHF consist of n-alkanes ranging from C₁₅ to C₃₀. Longer-chain hydrocarbons (up to C₄₀) are observed in olivine-rich samples from the central dome (IODP Hole 1309D). Occurrences of isoprenoids (pristane, phytane and squalane), polycyclic compounds (hopanes and steranes) and higher relative abundances of n-C₁₆ to n-C₂₀ alkanes in the serpentinites of the southern wall suggest a marine organic input. The vent fluids are characterized by high concentrations of methane and hydrogen, with a putative abiotic origin of hydrocarbons; however, evidence for an inorganic source of n-alkanes in the basement rocks remains equivocal. We propose that high seawater fluxes in the southern part of the Atlantis Massif likely favor the transport and incorporation of marine dissolved organic carbon and overprints possible abiotic geochemical signatures. The presence of pristane, phytane and squalane biomarkers in olivine-rich samples associated with local faults at the central dome implies fracture-controlled seawater circulation deep into the gabbroic core of the massif. Thus, our study indicates that hydrocarbons account for an important proportion of the total carbon stored in the Atlantis Massif basement and suggests that serpentinites may represent an important—as yet unidentified—reservoir for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from seawater.     

Kerogen of Toarcian shales of the Paris Basin. A study of its maturation by flash pyrolysis techniques

A set of 14 samples—both extracted and unextracted from the Toarcian of the Paris Basin have been investigated using Curie-point pyrolysis-mass spectrometry and Curie-point pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The relative amount of n-alkenes and n-alkanes in the pyrolyzates increases with increasing maximum burial depth of the samples. Comparison of the pyrolysis data of extracted and unextracted samples shows that generation of hydrocarbons from the kerogen starts at a maximum burial depth of ~ 1000m. The increase of pristane and phytane in the extracts of the deeper samples is correlated with the gradual decrease of the characteristic pyrolysis product prist-1-ene. Three samples yield pyrolyzates with high relative amounts of aromatic compounds. This phenomenon probably reflects a different type of contributing organic matter and/or a different environment of sedimentation.     

Characteristics and Natural Gas Origin of Middle−Late Triassic Marine Source Rocks of the Western Sichuan Depression, SW China

A scientific exploration well(CK1) was drilled to expand the oil/gas production in the western Sichuan depression, SW, China. Seventy-three core samples and four natural gas samples from the Middle–Late Triassic strata were analyzed to determine the paleo-depositional setting and the abundance of organic matter(OM) and to evaluate the hydrocarbon-generation process and potential. This information was then used to identify the origin of the natural gas. The OM is characterized by medium n-alkanes(n C_(15)–n C_(19)), low pristane/phytane and terrigenous aquatic ratios(TAR), a carbon preference index(CPI) of ～1, regular steranes with C_(29) C_(27) C_(28), gammacerane/C_(30) hopane ratios of 0.15–0.32, and δD_(org) of-132‰ to-58‰, suggesting a marine algal/phytoplankton source with terrestrial input deposited in a reducing–transitional saline/marine sedimentary environment. Based on the TOC, HI index, and chloroform bitumen "A" the algalrich dolomites of the Leikoupo Formation are fair–good source rocks; the grey limestones of the Maantang Formation are fair source rocks; and the shales of the Xiaotangzi Formation are moderately good source rocks. In addition, maceral and carbon isotopes indicate that the kerogen of the Leikoupo and Maantang formations is type Ⅱ and that of the Xiaotangzi Formation is type Ⅱ–Ⅲ. The maturity parameters and the hopane and sterane isomerization suggest that the OM was advanced mature and produced wet–dry gases. One-dimensional modeling of the thermal-burial history suggests that hydrocarbon-generation occurred at 220–60 Ma. The gas components and C–H–He–Ar–Ne isotopes indicate that the oilassociated gases were generated in the Leikoupo and Maantang formations, and then, they mixed with gases from the Xiaotangzi Formation, which were probably contributed by the underlying Permian marine source rocks. Therefore, the deeply-buried Middle–Late Triassic marine source rocks in the western Sichuan depression and in similar basins have a great significant hydrocarbon potential.     

Vanadyl porphyrins in exploration: maturity indicators for source rocks and oils

The Porphyrin Maturity Parameter (PMP), which is derived from the vanadyl porphyrin distribution, is an excellent parameter for: (1) identifying the zone of hydrocarbon generation from marine source rock extracts; and (2) determining from oils the thermal maturity of their source rocks at expulsion.The PMP is measured using a methodology which is inexpensive, reliable and faster than earlier methods, allowing it to be used as a routine exploration tool. The PMP may be a more reliable maturity indicator for marine organic matter than some conventional methods such as vitrinite reflectance. Unlike most conventional maturity parameters guided by processes other than kerogen conversion, the reactions causing PMP evolution directly monitor the generation of bitumen and the concurrent thermal degradation of kerogen.Measurements on hydrous pyrolyzates from the Monterey Formation (offshore California), source rock bitumens from the Devonian-Mississippian Bakken Shale (Williston Basin), and Miocene Monterey equivalent source strata (San Joaquin Basin, California) illustrate the method. In all cases reviewed so far, PMP begins increasing at the onset of hydrocarbon generation and increases systematically and predictably as kerogen decomposition proceeds.In oils generated from high-S marine kerogens, PMP reflects the maturity of the source rock at the time of oil expulsion, provided that the oil does not undergo subsequent reservoior maturation or mixing with in-situ bitumen.     

Evaluation of the petroleum composition and quality with increasing thermal maturity as simulated by hydrous pyrolysis: A case study using a Brazilian source rock with Type I kerogen

Hydrous pyrolysis (HP) experiments were used to investigate the petroleum composition and quality of petroleum generated from a Brazilian lacustrine source rock containing Type I kerogen with increasing thermal maturity. The tested sample was of Aptian age from the Araripe Basin (NE-Brazil). The temperatures (280–360 °C) and times (12–132 h) employed in the experiments simulated petroleum generation and expulsion (i.e., oil window) prior to secondary gas generation from the cracking of oil. Results show that similar to other oil prone source rocks, kerogen initially decomposes in part to a polar rich bitumen, which decomposes in part to hydrocarbon rich oil. These two overall reactions overlap with one another and have been recognized in oil shale retorting and natural petroleum generation. During bitumen decomposition to oil, some of the bitumen is converted to pyrobitumen, which results in an increase in the apparent kerogen (i.e., insoluble carbon) content with increasing maturation.The petroleum composition and its quality (i.e., API gravity, gas/oil ratio, C₁₅₊ fractions, alkane distribution, and sulfur content) are affected by thermal maturation within the oil window. API gravity, C₁₅₊ fractions and gas/oil ratios generated by HP are similar to those of natural petroleum considered to be sourced from similar Brazilian lacustrine source rocks with Type I kerogen of Lower Cretaceous age. API gravity of the HP expelled oils shows a complex relationship with increasing thermal maturation that is most influenced by the expulsion of asphaltenes. C₁₅₊ fractions (i.e., saturates, aromatics, resins and asphaltenes) show that expelled oils and bitumen are compositionally separate organic phases with no overlap in composition. Gas/oil ratios (GOR) initially decrease from 508–131 m³/m³ during bitumen generation and remain essentially constant (81–84 m³/m³) to the end of oil generation. This constancy in GOR is different from the continuous increase through the oil window observed in anhydrous pyrolysis experiments. Alkane distributions of the HP expelled oils are similar to those of natural crude oils considered to be sourced from similar Brazilian lacustrine source rocks with Type I kerogen of Lower Cretaceous age. Isoprenoid and n-alkane ratios (i.e., pristane/n-C₁₇ and phytane/n-C₁₈) decrease with increasing thermal maturity as observed in natural crude oils. Pristane/phytane ratios remain constant with increasing thermal maturity through the oil window, with ratios being slightly higher in the expelled oils relative to those in the bitumen. Generated hydrocarbon gases are similar to natural gases associated with crude oils considered to be sourced from similar Brazilian lacustrine source rocks with Type I kerogen of Lower Cretaceous, with the exception of elevated ethane contents. The general overall agreement in composition of natural and hydrous pyrolysis petroleum of lacustrine source rocks observed in this study supports the utility of HP to better characterize petroleum systems and the effects of maturation and expulsion on petroleum composition and quality.     

Thermal alteration experiments on organic matter from recent marine sediments in relation to petroleum genesis

Three fractions of organic matter: lipid (benzene:methanol-extractable), humic acid (alkali-extractable) and kerogen (residue) were extracted from a young marine sediment (Tanner Basin, offshore southern California) and heated for different times (5–116 hr) and temperatures (150°–410°C). The volatile (gases) and liquid products, as well as residual material, were then analyzed. On a weight basis, the lipid fraction produced 58% of the total identified n-alkanes, the kerogen fraction 41%, and the humic acid <1%. Whereas n-alkanes produced from lipid show a CPI > 1.0, those produced by thermal alteration of kerogen display a CPI < 1.0. The volatiles produced by heating the lipid and humic acid fractions were largely CO₂ and water, whereas those produced from heated kerogen also included methane, hydrogen gas and small amounts of C₂–C₄ hydrocarbons. A mechanism for hydrocarbon production due to the thermal alteration of organic constituents of marine sediment is discussed.     

海相碳酸盐岩中矿物结合有机质的组成及成烃演化

对高成熟程度的碳酸盐岩有机质进行了地球化学研究,发现在可溶有机质与干酪根之间存在着成熟度上的差异,这种差异是矿物对沥青组份的保护作用所致.矿物结合有机质无论在组成还是在分布上都与游离态有机质有较大不同,随着成熟度的增加,由于结合态有机质的释放,这种不同逐渐消失,研究表明,矿物结合有机质的释放约在过成熟阶段早期,其量可达几百个ppm.因而在碳酸盐岩地层中,除了干酷根成油气外,在高成熟区亦可能存在着由矿物结合有机质形成的“高温”石油.     

Organic matter and deposition conditions of the Kashpir oil shales

The composition of organic matter was investigated in the oil shales and country rocks of the Kashpir deposit. The analysis of the aromatic fraction of bitumen showed the presence of isorenieratene derivatives, which indicates the accumulation of the sequence under anoxic conditions in the bottom waters of a paleobasin. Special attention was given to the composition of organosulfur compounds from the bitumen of rocks and products of kerogen pyrolysis. The concentrations of hydrocarbon structures occurring in the bitumen in a free state and in sulfur-bearing derivatives are comparable. The composition of the pyrolysis products of kerogen depends on the concentration of organic carbon in the rock: carbon-rich rock varieties contain kerogen whose pyrolysis yields relatively high concentrations of organosulfur compounds and low total contents of n-alkanes/n-alkenes-1.     

Variations in the type and distribution of organic matter in some Carboniferous sediments from northern England

The organic content of a number of sediments from the Carboniferous of northern England have been examined as a function of their depositional environment. Extraction of the sediments yielded the soluble organic matter whilst microscopic examination of polished blocks of shales enabled the detection of particles of organic detritus. A relationship between the amount of extract and the quantity of terrestrial plant material in the sediments has been established. However, the yield of extract (mg/g org. C) is higher in the more marine environment than the nonmarine environment. The proportion of saturated hydrocarbons in the extract appears to be related to the amount of identifiable organic matter (coal macerals) in the sediment. The n-alkane distribution patterns have been compared with these obtained from coal macerals. The suggestion that the pristane to phytane ratios may reflect the source material of the organic matter has been examined.     

柴达木盆地东部第四系低丰度高效气源岩地球化学特征及成藏机理

对柴达木盆地东部地区第四系鸭湖和盐湖剖面进行了露头取样，并利用Rock-Eval生油岩评价、色谱质谱等实验分析测试技术对样品进行了地球化学特征分析。实验结果表明，样品有机碳含量变化不大，ω（TOC）为0．15％～O．75％，ω（S1＋S2）为（0．24～2．5）×10^-3。第四系气源岩中的有机质类型多以Ⅲ型有机质为主，少数为Ⅱ型，极少数为Ⅰ型。有机质主要来源于陆源生物为主的腐殖型和含腐泥腐殖型，是典型的低丰度有机质气源岩。C29甾烷异构化参数C28αββ／（αββ＋ααα）、C29ααα20S／（20S＋20R）分布分别为0．34～0．38、0．27～0．33，C31升藿烷22S／（22S＋22R）分布为0．49～0．56，显示第四系样品多处于未熟状态。巨厚的气源岩沉积厚度、第四纪寒冷的气候和高盐度的水体环境及有效的生储盖组合是形成第四系大型生物气藏的有利条件。     

Extractable organic compounds associated with the metamorphosed stratiform Cu-deposit of Tisová (czechoslovakia)

Greenschist facies rocks of the stratiform Cu-deposit of Tisová contain aliphatic hydrocarbons in the n-C₁₃ to n-C₂₂ range and n-fatty acids in the range of n-C₈ to n-C₂₂. The amount of n-fatty acids varies from 3.3 to 13.5 g. g^–1. The presence of isoprenoid hydrocarbons, phytane and pristane, and the prevalence of even-numbered fatty acids over the odd ones give evidence of the biogenic origin of isolated substances. The CPI values of hydrocarbons and n-fatty acids and the number of hydrocarbons with a higher molecular weight increase in the deposit in stratigraphically upward direction. The variations in composition of organic matter in different horizons of the ore deposit are suggested to be the result of thermal alteration and/or alteration via the catalytic activity of ore minerals.     

泥灰岩的生、排烃模拟实验研究

本文采用加水热模拟实验方法对东濮凹陷卫城地区下第三系低熟泥灰岩进行了生、排烃模拟实验研究，重点分析了液态产物（热解油、沥青Ａ、沥青Ｃ）的特征及演化规律。热解油中轻质烃（Ｃ₆－Ｃ₁₄）占有重要的地位，其相对含量随演化程度的增高变化特征是从大到小然后再增大，轻质烃的准确定量为评价泥灰岩的生油量提供了重要参数；热解油、沥青Ａ、沥表Ｃ三者的产率及组成变化的对比研究反映了泥灰岩（碳酸盐岩）中不同赋存状态有机质对成烃的贡献以及排烃机制。     

Modeling of catagenetic transformation of organic matter from a Riphean mudstone in hydrous pyrolysis experiments: Biomarker data

The catagenesis of organic matter (OM) was modeled by the hydrous pyrolysis of a Riphean mudstone. Microscopic observations of the processes operating during kerogen heating to 600°C were conducted in a diamond anvil cell. The results of pyrolysis in an aqueous environment were used to calculate the activation energies of kerogen cracking and derive chemical kinetic models for OM catagenesis. Isothermal experiments were carried out for 3 days at temperatures of 300, 310, …, 360, and 370°C. The maximum bitumen yield was obtained at 330°C followed by thermal cracking at higher temperatures. The aromatic and saturated hydrocarbons from rock bitumen, hydrous pyrolyzates, and kerogen flash pyrolyzates were analyzed by chromatography-mass spectrometry. We also discuss the problem of extrapolation of high-temperature pyrolysis results to geologic observations under the conditions of regional catagenesis.     

Release of bound aromatic hydrocarbons from late Archean and Mesoproterozoic kerogens via hydropyrolysis

Hydrogen-lean kerogens (atomic H/C<0.4) isolated from the 2.5-billion-year-old (Ga) Mt. McRae Shale, Hamersley Group, at Tom Price, Western Australia, were studied via hydropyrolysis, a continuous-flow technique that degrades organic matter in a stream of high-pressure hydrogen assisted by a dispersed Mo catalyst. The hydropyrolysates yielded predominantly phenanthrene and pyrene, and higher polyaromatic hydrocarbons and alkylated homologues were generated in low relative concentrations. Saturated hydrocarbons were not detected. The molecular and carbon isotopic compositions of the hydropyrolysates are very similar to aromatic hydrocarbons obtained by solvent extraction of the host rocks. Because molecular structures covalently attached to kerogen are unaffected by contamination, this indicates that both the bound and extractable aromatic fractions are syngenetic with the host rocks. Therefore, the results of the hydropyrolysis experiments provide compelling evidence for preserved bitumen of Archean age. The very high proportion of nonalkylated polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the hydropyrolysates is consistent with hydrothermal dehydrogenation of the kerogen, and a marked concentration difference of pyrene in rock extracts and hydropyrolysates might be explained by hydrothermal redistribution of the bitumen. The kerogen and bitumen composition is therefore consistent with models suggesting a hydrothermal origin for the giant iron ore deposits at Mt. Tom Price. Comparison of the Archean samples with hydropyrolysates from immature Mesoproterozoic kerogens from the Roper Group, McArthur Basin, Northern Territory, and with pyrolysis experiments on Proterozoic kerogens in the literature suggests that Precambrian kerogens are frequently highly aromatic and lipid-poor regardless of their degree of thermal preservation.     

Differences in the mode of incorporation and biogenicity of the principal aliphatic constituents of a Type I oil shale

Compound-specific stable carbon isotope (δ ) measurements on the aliphatic hydrocarbons released from an immature Tertiary oil shale (Göynük, Turkey) via hydropyrolysis, following solvent extraction and a milder hydrogenation treatment, have further highlighted that significant compositional differences may exist between the principal aliphatic constituents of the solvent extractable (bitumen) phase and the insoluble macromolecular network (kerogen) comprising the bulk of sedimentary organic matter. Whilst inputs from diverse sources; including algae, bacteria and terrestrial higher plants, were implied from analysis of solvent-extractable alkanes, the much larger quantities of kerogen-bound n-alkyl constituents released by hydropyrolysis had a uniform isotopic signature which could be assigned to (freshwater) algae. Remarkably, the aliphatics bound to the kerogen by relatively weak covalent bonds, liberated via catalytic hydrogenation, appeared to comprise mainly allochthonous higher plant-derived n-alkanes. These results provide further compelling evidence that the molecular constituents of bitumen and, indeed, of low-yield kerogen degradation products, are not necessarily reliable indicators of kerogen biogenicity, particularly for immature Type I source rocks. The isotopic uniformity of aliphatic n-hydrocarbons released by the high-conversion hydropyrolysis step for the ultralaminae-rich Göynük oil shale, lends further support to the theory that selective preservation of highly resistant aliphatic biomacromolecules is an important mechanism in kerogen formation, at least for alginite.     

东海陆架泥质区沉积有机质的物源分析

色谱和色谱／质谱分析表明，济州鸟西南泥质区正构烷烃、姥鲛烷、植烷、藿烷和甾烷等生物标志物的特征与现代长江口、老黄河口和新黄河口的河流沉积物均区别很大，该泥质区的沉积有机质主要来源于海洋低等生物（如细菌和藻类等）以及陆源高等植物的输入，表现为不同来源和成熟度的生物标志物的混合，同时该泥质区沉积有机质与矿物碎屑沉积物来源不尽相同。长江口泥质区正构烷烃高相对分子质量部分与长江口沉积物相似，正构烷烃和藿烷所反映的有机质成熟度高于现代长江和老黄河口沉积物，甾烷的成熟度与长江相仿而明显高于老黄河口沉积物。长江口泥质区的沉积有机质主要来源于长江输入的陆源高等植物碎片和海洋源的低等生物。东海陆架近岸与远端泥质区沉积有机质的物源很不相同。     

Predominance of isoprenoids among the alkanes in the Irati oil shale,Permian of Brazil

An alkane distribution in which isoprenoid alkanes are present in excess of n-paraffins and pristane, phytane, and norpristane (in this order) are the major components, has been found in two different beds of the Irati oil shale, Brazilian Permian formation of São Mateus do Sul, Paranã.     

松辽盆地松科1井晚白垩世沉积地层有机地球化学研究

松科1井是中国大陆第一口以白垩系陆相地层为主的全取心科学探井。通过取心样品的系统地球化学分析,研究了泥岩有机质丰度、类型、成熟演化及有机质沉积环境在纵向上的变化特征。结果表明:青一段泥岩有机质丰度最高,有机碳一般大于2%,平均为3.21%,发育优质烃源岩,其次在青二、三段、姚家组和嫩江组一、二段中也均发育有机质丰度相对较高的源岩层。纵向上泥岩有机质丰度显示出从高向低的9个韵律性变化,反映了湖相沉积过程中气候与水体环境、生物发育及有机质保存条件的周期性变化。青一段泥岩有机质类型主要为Ⅰ型,较高的甾烷含量反映以藻类输入为主,较高的伽马蜡烷和低的Pr/Ph及甲藻甾烷的存在反映该时期水体具有盐度分层和强还原的沉积环境,可能与海侵有关。青二、三段泥岩有机质类型主要为Ⅰ—Ⅱ型,伽马蜡烷和Pr/Ph等多项指标反映出该时期水体呈现振荡变化,有机质受陆源影响加大。姚家组有机质类型变化大,一部分为Ⅰ—Ⅱ1型,另一部分则Ⅱ2—Ⅲ型,较高丰度的泥岩通常具有较好的有机质类型,多项指标反映出该时期沉积环境波动较大。嫩江组一、二段泥岩主要以Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型为主,4-甲基甾烷的存在反映具有沟鞭藻的贡献,较高的伽马蜡烷和低的Pr/Ph反映水体有盐度分层。有机质成熟度指标反映青二、三段中部泥岩开始进入成熟,源岩开始大量生油的深度在1500m。     

Role of water in hydrocarbon generation from Type-I kerogen in Mahogany oil shale of the Green River Formation

Hydrous and anhydrous closed-system pyrolysis experiments were conducted on a sample of Mahogany oil shale (Eocene Green River Formation) containing Type-I kerogen to determine whether the role of water had the same effect on petroleum generation as reported for Type-II kerogen in the Woodford Shale. The experiments were conducted at 330 and 350 °C for 72 h to determine the effects of water during kerogen decomposition to polar-rich bitumen and subsequent bitumen decomposition to hydrocarbon-rich oil. The results showed that the role of water was more significant in bitumen decomposition to oil at 350 °C than in kerogen decomposition to bitumen at 330 °C. At 350 °C, the hydrous experiment generated 29% more total hydrocarbon product and 33% more C₁₅₊ hydrocarbons than the anhydrous experiment. This is attributed to water dissolved in the bitumen serving as a source of hydrogen to enhance thermal cracking and facilitate the expulsion of immiscible oil. In the absence of water, cross linking is enhanced in the confines of the rock, resulting in formation of pyrobitumen and molecular hydrogen. These differences are also reflected in the color and texture of the recovered rock. Despite confining liquid-water pressure being 7-9 times greater in the hydrous experiments than the confining vapor pressure in the anhydrous experiments, recovered rock from the former had a lighter color and expansion fractures parallel to the bedding fabric of the rock. The absence of these open tensile fractures in the recovered rock from the anhydrous experiments indicates that water promotes net-volume increase reactions like thermal cracking over net-volume decrease reactions like cross linking, which results in pyrobitumen. The results indicate the role of water in hydrocarbon and petroleum formation from Type-I kerogen is significant, as reported for Type-II kerogen.