Tropical Cyclones over the Western North Pacific Strengthen the East Asia–Pacific Pattern during Summer

The contribution of tropical cyclones(TCs)to the East Asia–Pacific(EAP)teleconnection pattern during summer was investigated using the best track data of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and NCEP-2 reanalysis datasets from 1979 to2018.The results showed that the TCs over the western North Pacific(WNP)correspond to a strengthened EAP pattern:During the summers of strong convection over the tropical WNP,TC days correspond to a stronger cyclonic circulation anomaly over the WNP in the lower troposphere,an enhanced seesaw pattern of negative and positive geopotential height anomalies over the subtropical WNP and midlatitude East Asia in the middle troposphere,and a more northward shift of the East Asian westerly jet in the upper troposphere.Further analyses indicated that two types of TCs with distinctly different tracks,i.e.,westward-moving TCs and northward-moving TCs,both favor the EAP pattern.The present results imply that TCs over the WNP,as extreme weather,can contribute significantly to summer-mean climate anomalies over the WNP and East Asia.     

登陆热带气旋降水增幅的合成诊断分析

利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,采用动态合成分析方法,对登陆后降水增幅类和非增幅类热带气旋的大尺度环流特征做了合成分析和动力诊断.结果表明:增幅类热带气旋处于强经向型环流之中,中高纬度为阻塞形势,高层有急流入口区南侧的强辐散,并与西风槽相互叠加;低层有急流和水汽通道的长时间联结;热带气旋东侧还有次级环流相伴.非增幅类热带气旋环流背景相对平直,高空辐散弱,无西风槽叠加;低空急流减弱迅速,且水汽通道较早出现断裂;无次级环流出现.增幅类热带气旋高层存在显著非地转运动,高层南风急流入口区的强次地转运动和降水增幅紧密相关.     

Estimating tropical cyclone precipitation from station observations

In this paper, an objective technique for estimating the tropical cyclone （TC） precipitation from station observations is proposed. Based on a comparison between the Original Objective Method （OOM） and the Expert Subjective Method （ESM）, the Objective Synoptic Analysis Technique （OSAT） for partitioning TC precipitation was developed by analyzing the western North Pacific （WNP） TC historical track and the daily precipitation datasets. Being an objective way of the ESM, OSAT overcomes the main problems in OOM, by changing two fixed parameters in OOM, the thresholds for the distance of the absolute TC precipitation （D0） and the TC size （D1）, into variable parameters.
Case verification for OSAT was also carried out by applying CMORPH （Climate Prediction Center MORPHing technique） daily precipitation measurements, which is NOAA＇s combined satellite precipitation measurement system. This indicates that OSAT is capable of distinguishing simultaneous TC precipitation rain-belts from those associated with different TCs or with middle-latitude weather systems.     

西北太平洋热带气旋达到不同强度时所处位置的变化趋势研究

本文利用美国联合台风预警中心（JTWC)、中国气象局上海台风研究所（CMA）及日本气象厅东京台风中心（JMA）3 套热带气旋（TC）数据集,分别选取TC 达到生命史极值强度时、达到台风等级时以及达到热带风暴等级时所在的位置作为研究指标,分析了1980—2013 年5—11 月西北太平洋TC 达到不同强度时所在位置的长期变化趋势。研究得出如下结论：西北太平洋TC 在达到生命史极值强度时所处的位置表现为显著向北移动的趋势,3 个不同数据集向北移动趋势值分别为90、93、113 km/10a。同时TC 在达到台风和热带风暴级别时还存在相对明显的向北和向西移动趋势。本文进一步从环境场出发,分析了垂直风切变、海表温度以及潜在生成指数等影响因子的变化特征,为TC达不同强度时所处位置的长期变化趋势给出可能的物理解释。     

Statistical characteristics and mechanistic analysis of suddenly reversed tropical cyclones over the western North Pacific Ocean

Based on best track data of tropical cyclones(TCs) from the Japan Meteorological Agency, the characteristics of suddenly reversed TCs(SRTCs), which have turning angles usually approaching 180°, are statistically analyzed from 1949 to 2011 over the western North Pacific Ocean. The typical large-scale circulation patterns of SRTCs are investigated using reanalysis data and dynamical composite analysis. Results show that turnings mainly occur in low latitudes between 10°N and 20°N,and mainly west of 135°E. The majority of SRTCs reach their peak intensity at, or slightly before, the turning time and subsequently decrease at some variable rate. Specifically, SRTCs are divided into four types, each containing two groups(i.e.eight groups in total) in terms of the moving-direction changes. The moving speed of all SRTC types except the south–north type decreases to its lowest during the 24 h, corresponding to a significant reduction in the primary steering components.According to the analysis of the 13 typical flow patterns found in this study, we suggest that sudden track changes are caused by the reversal steering flow. The original balance of the background flow patterns are broken up by new systems, e.g. binary TCs or dispersion-induced anticyclones. Additionally, sudden track changes are often due to double ridge variations of the subtropical high or weakened/strengthened high pressure in the east and west, respectively.     

RESEARCH PROGRESS ON THE STRUCTURE AND INTENSITY CHANGE FOR THE LANDFALLING TROPICAL CYCLONES

Landfalling tropical cyclones(LTCs)include those TCs approaching the land and moving across the coast.Structure and intensity change for LTCs include change of the eye wall,spiral rain band,mesoscale vortices,low-layer shear lines and tornadoes in the envelope region of TC,pre-TC squall lines,remote rain bands,core region intensity and extratropical transition(ET)processes,etc.Structure and intensity change of TC are mainly affected by three aspects,namely,environmental effects,inner core dynamics and underlying surface forcing.Structure and intensity change of coastal TCs will be especially affected by seaboard topography,oceanic stratification above the continental shelf and cold dry continental airflow,etc.Rapid changes of TC intensity,including rapid intensification and sudden weakening and dissipation,are the small probability events which are in lack of effective forecasting techniques up to now.Diagnostic analysis and mechanism study will help improve the understanding and prediction of the rapid change phenomena in TCs.     

COMPARISONS OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES EXPERIENCING EXTRATROPICAL TRANSITION IN THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC BASED ON DIFFERENT DATASETS

The differences in the climatology of extratropical transition(ET) of western North Pacific tropical cyclones(TCs) were investigated in this study using the TCs best-track datasets of China Meteorological Administration(CMA),Japan Meteorological Agency(JMA) and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center(JTWC). The results show that the ET identification, ET completion time, and post-ET duration reported in the JTWC dataset are greatly different from those in CMA and JMA datasets during 2004-2010. However, the key differences between the CMA and JMA datasets from 1951 to 2010 are the ET identification and the post-ET duration, because of inconsistent objective ET criteria used in the centers. Further analysis indicates that annual ET percentage of CMA was lower than that of JMA, and exhibited an interannual decreasing trend, while that of JMA was an unchanged trend. The western North Pacific ET events occurred mainly during the period June to November. The latitude of ET occurrence shifted northward from February to August,followed by a southward shift. Most of ET events were observed between 35°N and 45°N. From a regional perspective,TCs tended to undergo ET in Japan and the ocean east to it. It is found that TCs which experienced the ET process at higher latitudes were generally more intense at the ET completion time. TCs completing the ET overland or offshore were weaker than those finishing the ET over the ocean. Most of the TCs weakened 24 h before the completion of ET.In contrast, 21%(27%) of the TCs showed an intensification process based on the CMA(JMA) dataset during the post-ET period. The results presented in this study indicate that consistent ET determination criteria are needed to reduce the uncertainty involved in ET identification among the centers.     

热带气旋强度的卫星探测客观估计方法研究

运用2001～2002年6月10日到8月10日西北太平洋上15个热带气旋的日本静止气象卫星（GMS-5）高分辨率红外辐射亮温（TBB）资料，从代表热带气旋强度的热带气旋云系特征中选取多个TBB因子及热带气旋中心所在纬度等因子，结合《热带气旋年鉴》资料，采用逐步回归方法，经多次试验求得热带气旋强度的客观估计算式，复相关系数达到0.80以上。由此式估计的热带气旋中心气压，经24 h滑动平均后的结果与年鉴气压的复相关系数提高到0.89，且两者之间的气压差在±10 hPa之内的占整个样本数的83%以上，与美国新近展示的相关研究结果十分接近。用2000年两个热带气旋作检验，结果很好。该客观方法有望替代目前的Dvorak主观估计方法，成为一种新的业务方法。     

T213与T639模式热带气旋预报误差对比

应用国家气象中心全球谱模式T213L31(简称T213) 及其升级版本T639L60(简称T639) 对2009—2010年西北太平洋热带气旋数值预报的结果进行对比。结果表明:T213与T639模式24～120 h预报平均距离误差基本相近,但由于T639模式分辨率较高,T639模式的热带气旋强度预报明显好于T213模式。从分类误差来看,T639模式对于西北行登陆及转向热带气旋的路径预报好于T213模式,但对西行及北上热带气旋预报误差偏大。对于异常路径热带气旋预报,T639模式能较好预报环流形势的突然调整,对路径突变的热带气旋预报比T213模式有明显优势;从登陆类热带气旋预报的移向误差来看,T213模式存在东北偏北向系统性偏差,T639模式存在东北偏东向系统性偏差。     

Experiments of DSAEF_LTP Model with Two Improved Parameters for Accumulated Precipitation of Landfalling Tropical Cyclones over Southeast China

The Dynamical-Statistical-Analog Ensemble Forecast model for landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) precipitation (DSAEF_LTP) utilises an operational numerical weather prediction (NWP) model for the forecast track, while the precipitation forecast is obtained by finding analog cyclones, and making a precipitation forecast from an ensemble of the analogs. This study addresses TCs that occurred from 2004 to 2019 in Southeast China with 47 TCs as training samples and 18 TCs for independent forecast experiments. Experiments use four model versions. The control experiment DSAEF_LTP_1 includes three factors including TC track, landfall season, and TC intensity to determine analogs. Versions DSAEF_LTP_2, DSAEF_LTP_3, and DSAEF_LTP_4 respectively integrate improved similarity region, improved ensemble method, and improvements in both parameters. Results show that the DSAEF_LTP model with new values of similarity region and ensemble method (DSAEF_LTP_4) performs best in the simulation experiment, while the DSAEF_LTP model with new values only of ensemble method (DSAEF_LTP_3) performs best in the forecast experiment. The reason for the difference between simulation (training sample) and forecast (independent sample) may be that the proportion of TC with typical tracks (southeast to northwest movement or landfall over Southeast China) has changed significantly between samples. Forecast performance is compared with that of three global dynamical models (ECMWF, GRAPES, and GFS) and a regional dynamical model (SMS-WARMS). The DSAEF_LTP model performs better than the dynamical models and tends to produce more false alarms in accumulated forecast precipitation above 250 mm and 100 mm. Compared with TCs without heavy precipitation or typical tracks, TCs with these characteristics are better forecasted by the DSAEF_LTP model.     

登陆中国大陆、海南和台湾的热带气旋及其相互关系

首先,针对登陆中国热带气旋的登陆地点资料仅为地名的现状,利用1951-2004年西北太平洋热带气旋资料和登陆中国热带气旋资料,研究制定了登陆资料信息化方案.该方案包括海岸线近似、登陆位置计算、其他特征量计算和误差订正4个方面.对资料信息化结果的分析表明:信息化登陆资料效果是良好的.在此基础上,对登陆中国热带气旋的基本气候特征进行研究,重点分析了在大陆、海南和台湾登陆的3类热带气旋以及它们的相互关系.结果表明:登陆热带气旋频繁的地区为台湾东部沿海、福建至雷州半岛沿海和海南东部沿海;台湾东部沿海和浙江沿海部分地区是登陆热带气旋平均强度最大的地区,平均登陆强度达到台风级别,其中台湾南端的平均登陆强度为最强,达到强台风级别;5-11月为热带气旋登陆中国季节,集中期为7-9月,8月最多;登陆热带气旋的强度主要集中在热带低压-台风,尤其以强热带风暴和台风最多.对于全部大陆、海南和台湾三地,50多年来登陆热带气旋频数都存在不同程度的减少趋势,但只有登陆海南热带气旋的减少趋势是显著的;而所有登陆风暴(含以上强度)频数均无明显增多或减少趋势.总体而言,登陆大陆的TC最多、初旋最早、终旋最晚、登陆期最长;登陆海南的TC居中;而登陆台湾的TC最少、初旋最晚、终旋最早、登陆期最短.从登陆方式看,登陆一地的TC最多、登陆两地的TC次之,分别占总数的79.2%和20.6%,仅有1个TC登陆三地.在登陆两地的TC中,经台湾登陆大陆的TC频数最多、强度减弱最快,经海南登陆大陆的TC频数次之、强度减弱较慢,经大陆登陆海南的TC频数排行第3、强度减弱较快.     

Distribution Characteristics of the Intensity and Extreme Intensity of Tropical Cyclones Influencing China

To address the deficiency of climatological research on tropical cyclones(TCs) influencing China, we analyze the distributions of TCs with different intensities in the region, based on the best-track TC data for1949–2011 provided by the Shanghai Typhoon Institute. We also present the distributions of 50- and 100-yr return-period TCs with different intensities using the Gumbel probability distribution. The results show that TCs with different intensities exert distinctive effects on various regions of China and its surrounding waters. The extreme intensity distributions of TCs over these different regions also differ. Super and severe typhoons mainly influence Taiwan Island and coastal areas of Fujian and Zhejiang provinces, while typhoons and TCs with lower intensities influence South China most frequently. The probable maximum TC intensity(PMTI) with 50- and 100-yr return periods influencing Taiwan Island is below 890 hPa; the PMTI with a50-yr return period influencing the coastal areas of Fujian and Zhejiang provinces is less than 910 hPa, and that with a 100-yr return period is less than 900 hPa; the PMTI with a 50-yr return period influencing the coastal areas of Hainan, Guangdong, and the northern part of the South China Sea is lower than 930 hPa,and that with a 100-yr return period is less than 920 hPa. The results provide a useful reference for the estimation of extreme TC intensities over different regions of China.     

Statistical Features of Tropical Cyclones Affecting China and Its Key Economic Zones

Recent trends and variability in tropical cyclone (TC) frequency and intensity are examined for TCs that affected China, with particular focus on those TCs that affected China’s key economic zones (e.g., the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta, and the Beijing-Tianjin area). The results show that the frequency of TCs affecting China weakly declined during the 1980s and 2000s, followed by a slight increase. The time series of TC frequency shows insignificant variations at periods of 2–6 yr during the past 60 years; these variations are significantly correlated with ENSO activity. The frequency of TCs affecting the Pearl River Delta area is strongly correlated with the ENSO cycle while the frequency of TCs affecting the Yangtze River Delta is not. The TC frequency varies differently for TCs of different intensities. Tropical storms (TSs) affecting China were small in total number, but have clearly increased in frequency. The frequencies of severe tropical storm (STS), typhoon (TY), severe typhoon (STY), and super typhoon (super TY) affecting China declined significantly during the 1970s and 1980s, but the numbers of STY and super TY have increased over the 2000s. The typical intensity of TCs affecting China declined over the 60-yr timeframe, but increased over the most recent 10 years (2000–2010). This increase in the intensity of TCs has particularly impacted the Yangtze River Delta area, which has experienced increased numbers of STYs and super TYs. These tendencies are observed in changes of the maximum intensity of TCs affecting both China in general and the Yangtze River Delta in particular during both the full 60-yr analysis period and the latest 10-yr period; however, these tendencies are not observed in changes of the average intensity of TCs. By contrast, both the extreme intensity and the average intensity of TCs affecting the Pearl River Delta have decreased throughout the analysis period, including the most recent decade.     

1949—2019 年影响山东的热带气旋时空分布及极端降水和大气环流异常

使用中国气象局热带气旋资料中心的热带气旋最佳路径数据集和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料提供的月平均数据,对北上影响山东的热带气旋（tropical cyclone,TC）及其造成的极端降水进行统计分析,并揭示了有利于 TC北移影响山东的大气环流特征。结果表明：影响山东的 TC主要出现 于 6—9 月,其中盛夏时节（7、8 月）TC对山东影响最大;TC影响山东时,强度主要为台风及以下等 级,或已发生变性;TC会引发山东极端降水事件,TC极端降水多出现在夏秋季（7—9 月）,其中8月的占比最大,9月次之,TC降水在极端降水事件中的占比约为 10%,但年际变化大,有些年份占比达60%以上,特别是1990 年以来 TC对极端降水的贡献显著增强;影响山东的 TC主要生成于西 北太平洋,多为转向型路径;当500 hPa位势高度异常场呈太平洋一日本遥相关型的正位相时,TC更易北上影响山东,此时西北太平洋副热带高压位置偏北,其外围气流会引导TC北上转向,对华东地区造成影响;850 hPa上,南海至西北太平洋存在异常气旋式环流,对流活跃,夏季风环流和季风槽加强,有利于TC的生成和发展,同时,华东、华南上空有异常上升运动,涡度增大,垂直风切变减小,水汽充沛,TC登陆后强度能得到较好的维持。     

全球升温1.5℃与2.0℃情景下中国东南沿海致灾气旋的时空变化

将造成经济损失的热带气旋定义为致灾气旋。基于气象观测站的逐日气压、风速和降水量数据确定致灾气旋阈值,结合区域气候模式COSMO-CLM(CCLM)在1961—2100年的输出资料,预估致灾气旋发生频数及其风速与降水量,分析全球升温1.5 ℃与2.0 ℃情景下,中国东南沿海地区致灾气旋时空变化特征。结果表明:(1) 1986—2015年,东南沿海地区致灾气旋发生频数共计180个,整体呈上升趋势,平均风速和降水量分别为8.7 m/s和129.8 mm,对浙江东部及广东东部沿海影响最严重。(2)全球升温1.5 ℃,2020—2039年致灾气旋频数将由基准期(1986—2005年)的111个上升至138个,增加区域主要位于广东省西南地区及福建省南部地区;平均风速和降水量分别上升15%和17%,至8.4 m/s和109.9 mm,以福建省沿海地区增加最明显。(3)全球升温2.0 ℃,2040—2059年致灾气旋频数较1986—2005年增加33%,将达148个;风速上升32%,以浙江省东部、福建和广东省接壤的沿海地区及广东省南部增幅最大;降水量上升35%,以福建与广东省接壤的沿海地区及广东省西南地区增加明显。(4)相比升温1.5 ℃,全球气温额外升高0.5 ℃,东南沿海地区致灾气旋频数及其风速与降水量将分别上升9%、17%和18%。努力将温升控制在1.5 ℃,对降低致灾气旋频率和强度增加所导致的影响具有重要意义。      

沿海风工程设计风速中泊松-耿贝尔法的应用

每年西北太平洋热带气旋(TC)发生的次数、移动路径和强度都是随机的,我国东南沿海各地每年受TC影响的次数便构成了某种离散型分布,而TC影响下的最大风速则可以构成某种连续型分布。该文采用上海台风研究所提供的1961—2006年TC中心风速和TC影响期间各台站大风资料,利用泊松-耿贝尔联合极值风速计算方法,计算了沿海各气象站TC影响大风的多年一遇风工程设计最大风速。结果表明:当观测资料样本序列较短,特别是像TC这样随机性很强的天气事件,泊松-耿贝尔联合极值算法更具优势;我国沿海地区有53.9%的台站50年一遇最大风速在25 m/s以下,最大风速大于42.5 m/s以上的台站分布于浙江的大陈岛、嵊山、石浦,福建的北茭和台山,广东的遮浪、上川岛和海南的西沙岛,在这些地区进行风电开发风险较大,应引起足够重视。     

OPERATIONAL FORECAST OF RAINFALL INDUCED BY LANDFALLING TROPICAL CYCLONES ALONG GUANGDONG COAST

Following previous studies of the rainfall forecast in Shenzhen owing to landfalling tropical cyclones(TCs), a nonparametric statistical scheme based on the classification of the landfalling TCs is applied to analyze and forecast the rainfall induced by landfalling TCs in the coastal area of Guangdong province, China. All the TCs landfalling with the distance less than 700 kilometers to the 8 coastal stations in Guangdong province during 1950—2013 are categorized according to their landfalling position and intensity. The daily rainfall records of all the 8 meteorological stations are obtained and analyzed. The maximum daily rainfall and the maximum 3 days' accumulated rainfall at the 8 coastal stations induced by each category of TCs during the TC landfall period(a couple of days before and after TC landfalling time) from 1950 to 2013 are computed by the percentile estimation and illustrated by boxplots. These boxplots can be used to estimate the rainfall induced by landfalling TC of the same category in the future. The statistical boxplot scheme is further coupled with the model outputs from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF) to predict the rainfall induced by landfalling TCs along the coastal area. The TCs landfalling in south China from 2014 to 2017 and the corresponding rainfall at the 8 stations area are used to evaluate the performance of these boxplots and coupled boxplots schemes. Results show that the statistical boxplots scheme and coupled boxplots scheme can perform better than ECMWF model in the operational rainfall forecast along the coastal area in south China.     

INTENSITY CHANGE CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES IN THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC AS REVEALED BY THREE DIFFERENT DATASETS

Analyzed in this paper are the 20-yr(1991-2010)tropical cyclone(TC)intensity from three forecast centers in the Western North Pacific,i.e.China Meteorological Administration(CMA),Japan Meteorological Agency(JMA),and Joint Typhoon Warning Center(JTWC)of the United States.Results show that there is more or less discrepancy in the intensity change of a TC among different datasets.The maximum discrepancy reaches 22 hPa/6h(42 hPa/6h,33 hPa/6h)between CMA and JMA(CMA and JTWC,JMA and JTWC).Special attention is paid to the records for abrupt intensity change,which is currently a difficult issue for forecasters globally.It is found that an abrupt intensity change process recorded by one dataset can have,in some extreme cases,intensity change in another dataset varying from 0 to≥10 hPa/6h with the same sign or the opposite sign.In a total of 2511 cases experiencing rapid intensity change,only 14%have consensus among all the three datasets and 25%have agreement between two of the three datasets.In spite of such a significant uncertainty,the three datasets agree on the general statistical characteristics of abrupt intensity change,including regional and seasonal distribution,the relationship with initial intensity and TC moving speed,and persistence features.Notable disagreement is on very strong systems(SuperTY)and TCs moving very fast.     

2011/2012年冬季我国异常低温特征及可能成因分析

2011/2012年冬季,我国大部气温异常偏低,全国平均气温仅有-4.8℃,为1986年以来最低值,同时我国内蒙古、新疆、西藏和陕西一些地区日最低气温均突破历史极值。本文利用1951—2010年的中国台站气温资料及NCEP再分析资料对冬季气温异常偏低的原因分析后表明,2011/2012年东亚冬季风异常偏强造成了我国气温大范围异常偏低。异常偏强的东亚冬季风环流系统也表现为:对流层低层西伯利亚地区为异常冷高压控制,对流层中高层从乌拉尔山到贝加尔湖地区上空阻塞异常偏强,东亚大槽异常偏深。进一步的分析表明,2011年冬季时期赤道中东太平洋地区出现的La Nina事件可能是造成东亚冬季风系统异常的原因之一。     

Contribution of tropical cyclones to abnormal sea surface temperature warming in the Yellow Sea in December 2004

Unusual sea surface temperature (SST) warming occurred over the Yellow Sea (YS) in December 2004. To identify the causes of the abnormal SST warming, we conducted an analysis on atmospheric circulation anomalies induced by tropical cyclones (TCs) and their impacts on upper ocean characteristics using multiple datasets. With the analysis of various datasets, we explored a new aspect of the relationship between TC activity and SST. The results show that there is a significant link between TC activity over the Northwest Pacific (NWP) and SST in the YS. The integrated effect of consecutive TCs activity induces a large-scale atmospheric cyclonic circulation anomaly over the NWP and consequently anomalous easterly winds over the YS and East China Sea. The mechanism of the unusually warm SST in the YS can be explained by considering TCs acting as an important source of Ekman heat transport that results in substantial intrusion of relatively warm surface water into the YS interior. Furthermore, TC-related circulation anomalies contribute to the retention of the resulting warm SST anomalies in the entire YS.