Parameter sensitivity of a coupled atmosphere-ocean model

 The sensitivity of a coupled model to the oceanic vertical diffusion coefficient κ _v is examined. This is compared to the sensitivity of an ocean-only model forced by mixed boundary conditions (BC). The atmospheric component of the coupled model is a moist energy balance model. The ocean component is a 12-level geostrophic model, defined on a midlatitude β-plane. Atmosphere and ocean are coupled through the fluxes of heat and moisture at their interface. The coupled model contains a number of feedback processes which are not represented in the ocean-only model. This results in a temperature and salinity response to κ _v which is stronger in the coupled model than in the ocean-only model. On the other hand, there is a weaker response in oceanic processes such as meridional heat transport, deep-water formation at high latitudes, etc. Ocean-only sensitivity experiments were also performed with modified BCs, which parametrise the feedback processes included in the coupled model. These are the modified thermal BC of Rahmstorf and Willebrand and a modified freshwater BC proposed in the present study. Large-scale features of the response in oceanic surface fields are well represented with modified BCs. However, the sensitivity of the deep ocean temperature is only partly captured due to local differences in the surface response. The scaling behavior of the zonal overturning stream function was found to depend on the surface BCs. In contrast to this, the meridional overturning stream function basically scales with κ^0.5 _v in all sensitivity experiments. Differences in the heat transport response among the experiments are thus primarily related to differences in the temperature response. Received: 28 February 1997/Accepted: 12 September 1997     

四川暴雨过程动力因子指示意义与预报意义研究

本文利用2010年8月18~19日四川盆地西部地区一次引发了泥石流等次生灾害的暴雨天气过程的数值模拟资料及0.5°×0.5°分辨率、每6 h一次的GFS(Global Forecast Model)预报资料,结合集合动力因子预报系统中的广义对流涡度矢量垂直分量、质量散度、垂直螺旋度、质量垂直螺旋度、水汽垂直螺旋度、热力垂直螺旋度、湿热力平流参数、密度散度垂直通量、散度垂直通量、热力散度垂直通量、水汽散度通量、广义 Q 矢量散度等12个动力因子成员对此次暴雨过程进行诊断分析和预报研究,结果显示:(1)集合动力因子预报系统中的动力因子对此次降水落区诊断效果良好;(2)各动力因子区域均值随时间的变化曲线都能表现出降水区域均值随时间变化曲线双峰形态,其中,广义 Q 矢量散度、水汽垂直螺旋度、热力垂直螺旋度、质量垂直螺旋度、垂直螺旋度与降水的相关系数较大(达0.9以上),对此次降水的诊断效果较好;(3)动力因子对此次强降水过程的发展演变具有一定的预报能力。     

一种新的垂直速度计算方法

在流体的不可压缩条件下,本文通过连续方程给出了一种新的垂直速度计算方法,称为z方法。通过实验得出:z方法下同样可以得出水平涡度与垂直运动的关系,即水平涡度矢量逆时针旋转时,对应上升运动,顺时针旋转时对应下沉运动。通过有效性验证得出:本文的方法在高层具有比较高的可靠性,在低层可靠性比高层稍弱,在中层则不甚理想。通过与p方法求解出的垂直速度的效果进行比较,得出p方法略好于z方法。     

江淮切变线强度的定量化描述方法研究

从气象观测事实和物理的角度出发,定义了一种江淮切变线强度的定量化的表征方法,即综合与降水关系密切的切变涡度和散度形成能客观近似地刻画切变线附近切变强度的指标量■。并在此基础上利用再分析资料和实况降水资料分析切变强度与对应降水量之间的关系,分析表明:强切变强度区域与降水雨带有明显的对应关系,降水区往往与强切变强度区域相一致或是比强切变强度区域略偏南;证实了切变强度与降水强度有正相关关系的事实,当切变强度■时,对应区域6 h累积降水量超过10 mm,甚至达到30 mm。     

An Efficient Accurate Direct Solution of Poisson’s Equation for Computation of Meteorological Parameters

Poisson's equation is solved numerically by two direct methods, viz. Block Cyclic Reduction (BCR) method and Fourier Method. Qualitative and quantitative comparison between the numerical solutions obtained by two methods indicates that BCR method is superior to Fourier method in terms of speed and accuracy. Therefore. BCR method is applied to solve (?)2(?)= ζ and (?)2X= D from observed vorticity and divergent values. Thereafter the rotational and divergent components of the horizontal monsoon wind in the lower troposphere are reconstructed and are com pared with the results obtained by Successive Over-Relaxation (SOR) method as this indirect method is generally in more use for obtaining the streamfunction ((?)) and velocity potential (X) fields in NWP models. It is found that the results of BCR method are more reliable than SOR method.     

台风“利奇马”期间苏州大暴雨物理量诊断和微物理特征分析

采用日本气象厅的最佳台风路径及强度资料、NCEP/NCAR逐6 h细网格再分析数据,分析了"利奇马"暴雨影响相关的云水含量、假相当位温、水汽通量散度、Q矢量、湿位涡等物理量;通过苏州雨滴谱资料,分析降雨强度、雨滴数密度、雨滴平均直径、雨滴含水量、雷达反射率因子、雨滴谱宽等微物理量特征。结果表明降水落区位于环境垂直风切变顺切的左侧。暴雨期间能量和水汽条件较好,低层Q矢量梯度使辐合上升增强,且其非对称性对暴雨落区有指示意义,湿位涡的发展也有利于暴雨的加强;另外,微物理分析表明冷云降水机制使降水效率大幅提高,雨滴谱能较好地反映台风降水特征,强降水主要由层状云中嵌入的对流降水引起。强降水时段雨滴谱的相关微物理量等都呈现较大值。     

The spectral velocity tensor for homogeneous boundary-layer turbulence

We have postulated a simple model for the spectral tensor _ij (k) of an anisotropic, but homogeneous turbulent velocity field. It is a simple generalization of the spectral tensor _inf ^{ij piso}(k) for isotropic turbulence and we show how in the limit of isotropy, _ij (k) becomes equal to _inf ^{ij piso}(k). Whereas _inf ^{ij piso}(k) is determined entirely by one scalar function of k = ¦k¦, namely the energy spectrum, we need three independent scalar functions of k to specify _ij (k). We show how it is possible by means of the three stream-wise velocity component spectra to determine the three scalar functions in _ij (k) by solving two uncoupled, ordinary linear differential equations of first and second order. The analytic form of the component spectra each has a set of three parameters: the variance and the integral length scale of the velocity component and a dimensionless parameter, which governs the curvature of the spectrum in the transition domain from the inertial subrange towards lower wave numbers. When the three sets of parameters are the same, the three spectra correspond to isotropic turbulence and they are all interrelated and related to the energy spectrum. We show how it is possible to obtain these spectral forms in the neutral surface layer and in the convective boundary layer from data reported in the literature. The spectral tensor is used to predict the lateral coherences for all three velocity components and these predictions are compared with coherences obtained in two experiments, one using three masts at a horizontally homogeneous site in Denmark and one employing two aircraft flying in formation over eastern Colorado. Comparison shows reasonable agreement although with considerable experimental scatter.The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

The vorticity balance on the Southern British Columbia continental shelf

Abstract

An array of moored current meters was deployed over a canyon system on the British Columbia continental shelf in the spring of 1985 and maintained for 110 days. The array was specifically designed to monitor the various terms in the vorticity budget.

The observations indicate that the substantial variations in vorticity with time are being driven by vertical velocities originating from the head of a small canyon. These vertical velocities are in turn being directly driven by deep northward flows along the axis of the canyon and these latter flows are closely related to the southward shelf‐edge‐flow.     

A Note on an improved expression for the atmospheric CO2, N2O,CH4 and O2 integral transmission function: Research note

Abstract

A new analytical expression for the integral transmission function corresponding to the uniformly mixed atmospheric gases (CO₂, N₂O, CH4 and O₂) is proposed for solar radiation models. The expression is based on the latest known spectral absorption data of the gases as well as on the Ñeckel and Labs (1981) extraterrestrial solar spectrum, which is the best currently available. The proposed formula is compared with the known expressions for the integral transmission function of the uniformly mixed gases and the results of this comparison are discussed.     

Turbulence spectra in the near-neutral surface layer over the Loess Plateau in China

We present the power spectra of wind velocity and the cospectra of momentum and heat fluxes observed for different wind directions over flat terrain and a large valley on the Loess Plateau. The power spectra of longitudinal (u) and lateral (v) wind speeds satisfy the −5/3 power law in the inertial subrange, but do not vary as observed in previous studies within the low frequency range. The u spectrum measured at 32 m height for flow from the valley shows a power deficit at intermediate frequencies, while the v spectrum at 32 m downwind of the valley reaches another peak in the low frequency range at the same frequency as the u spectrum. The corresponding peak wavelength is consistent with the observed length scale of the convective outer layer at the site. The v spectrum for flat terrain shows a spectral gap at mid frequencies while obeying inner layer scaling in its inertial subrange, suggesting two sources of turbulence in the surface layer. All the spectra and cospectra from the valley direction show a height dependency over the three levels.     

Diagnostic analysis of the evolution mechanism for a vortex over the Tibetan Plateau in June 2008

Based on the final analyses data (FNL) of the Global Forecasting System of the NCEP and the obser- vational radiosonde data, the evolution mechanism of an eastward-moving low-level vortex over the Tibetan Plateau in June 2008 was analyzed. The results show that the formation of the vortex was related to the convergence between the northwesterly over the central Tibetan Plateau from the westerly zone and the southerly from the Bay of Bengal at 500 hPa, and also to the divergence associated with the entrance re- gion of the upper westerly jet at 200 hPa. Their dynamic effects were favorable for ascending motion and forming the vortex over the Tibetan Plateau. Furthermore, the effect of the atmospheric heat source (Q1) is discussed based on a transformed potential vorticity (PV) tendency equation. By calculating the PV budgets, we showed that Q1 had a great inffuence on the intensity and moving direction of the vortex. In the developing stage of the vortex, the heating of the vertically integrated Q1 was centered to the east of the vortex center at 500 hPa, increasing PV tendency to the east of the vortex. As a result, the vortex strengthened and moved eastward through the vertically uneven distribution of Q1. In the decaying stage, the horizontally uneven heating of Q1 at 500 hPa weakened the vortex through causing the vortex tubes around the vortex to slant and redistributing the vertical vorticity field.     

Accuracy of moments of velocity and scalar fluctuations in the atmospheric surface layer

A detailed accuracy analysis is presented for moments, up to order four, of both velocity (horizontal u and vertical w) and scalar (temperature and humidity q) fluctuations, as well as of the products uw, w and wq, in the atmospheric surface layer. The high-order moments and integral time scales required for this analysis are evaluated from data obtained at a height of about 5 m above the ocean surface under stability conditions corresponding to Z/L \- –0.05. Measured moments and probability density functions of some of the individual fluctuations show departures from Gaussianity, but these are sufficiently small to enable good estimates to be obtained using Gaussian instead of measured moments. For the products, the assumption of joint Gaussianity for individual fluctuations provides a reasonable, though somewhat conservative, estimate for the integration times required. The concept of Reynolds number similarity implies that differences in integration time requirements for flows at different Reynolds numbers arise exclusively from differences in integral time scales. A first approximation to the integral time scales relevant to atmospheric flows is presented.     

Possibility of Solid Hydrometeor Growth Zone Identification Using Radar Spectrum Width

In this study, the correlation between simulated and measured radar velocity spectrum width(σ_v) is investigated. The results show that the dendrites growth zones(DGZs) and needles growth zones(NGZs) mostly contain dendrites(DN) and needles(NE), respectively.Clear σ_v zones(1.1 < σ_v(m s^–1) < 1.3 and 0.3 < σ_v(m s^–1) < 0.7 for the DGZ and NGZ, respectively) could be identified in the case studies(27 and 28 February 2016) n...     

Correcting Distortions in Measurements of Atmospheric Pressure Fluctuations

Although recognized as important, measurements of turbulent atmospheric pressure are considered difficult and are conducted infrequently. Here we discuss the essential elements in the design of an instrument for measuring turbulent fluctuations of atmospheric pressure. Our analysis of the instrument’s dynamics is focused on the signal distortions resulting from a pneumatic filter, a necessary element in the instrument’s design. Such distortions substantially affect the observed spectral scaling of the pressure field as well as other quantities of physical interest, such as pressure-velocity 〈p, v〉 and pressure-wave 〈p, η〉 covariances. We propose a computationally efficient discrete-time signal processing method for complete compensation of pneumatic filter distortions and review the criteria for selecting the instrument parameters (sampling frequency and time constant), so that digital filter distortions, precision degradation, clipping, and over-damping, are simultaneously avoided. This correction method must be an inherent part of the instrument’s design.     

A comparison of a Eulerian and a Lagrangian time scale for over-water atmospheric flows during stable conditions

Lagrangian integral time scales were calculated from crosswind concentration distributions of oil-fog smoke released from a continuous point source over the ocean during stable atmospheric conditions assuming an exponential correlation function. Variance of the lateral velocity fluctuations, _v ², and the energy dissipation rate, , were obtained from simultaneous Eulerian measurements at the beach. An Eulerian energy dissipation scale defined as _v ²/ was then computed. The ratio of the Lagrangian integral scale to the Eulerian energy dissipation scale was found to be close to 1. This ratio was also estimated to be 1 based on physical and dimensional considerations regarding the cascade of energy. Length scales for longitudinal, lateral and vertical directions were interpreted with a model based on similarity considerations applicable for over-water atmospheric flows.Authored under contract EY-76-C-02-0016 with the U.S. Department of Energy. Accordingly, the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes.     

An Empirical Tropical Instability Wave-induced Wind Stress Model in the Equatorial Pacific and its Incorporation into the Ocean Model

Abstract

Satellite observations revealed that there is a close relationship between perturbations of sea surface temperature (SST) and wind stress (τ) induced by tropical instability waves (TIWs; SST_TIW and τ _TIW). Using the empirical relationship observed between TIW-induced wind stress divergence (curl) and downwind (crosswind) SST gradients, this study establishes a TIW-induced wind stress field perturbation model τ _TIW?=?F(SST). This empirical model solves τ _TIW from the TIW-induced wind stress divergence and curl, which are estimated from the downwind and crosswind SST gradients. This empirical τ _TIW?=?F(SST) model can be incorporated into the ocean model to take into account the effect of τ _TIW. By comparing two experiments with and without the τ _TIW effect, this study demonstrates that τ _TIW has a substantial effect on the equatorial Pacific heat budget and induces the long-term mean SST to exhibit a 0.2°C difference, which is consistent with previous studies.     

A comparison of different methods of estimating energy‐limited evapotranspiration in the peace river region of British Columbia

Abstract

The performances of eight methods for estimating daily energy‐limited evapotranspiration (E_e) were compared with reliable values for the Peace River region of British Columbia. They included the methods of Priestley and Taylor (PT), Jensen and Haise (JH), Hargreaves (H) and Makkink (M), the first and second equations of Baier and Robertson (BR1 and BR2), and the modified methods of Blaney and Criddle (BC) and Thornthwaite (T). The reference data were obtained from previous workers, who in 1977 and 1979 made micrometeorological measurements of E_e using the Bowen ratio method.

The relationships between estimated and measured E_e values excluding the T method in 1977 had correlation coefficients (R) ranging from 0.65 to 0.84. These were not significantly different at the 5% level. The Standard Errors of the Estimate (SEE) ranged from 0.43 to 1.69 mm d^?1. The PT, JH, BR1 and T methods had low SEE values, whereas the BR2, H, BC and M methods had high SEE values. Six of the eight methods (PT, JH, H, M, BR2 and BC) were calibrated for local conditions using 1979 data. After calibration, the methods were tested with the 1977 data. The results indicated significant improvement in the fit of four of the methods (H, M, BR2 and BC). Overall, it was concluded that after calibration, six of the eight methods had predictive power and fit that were not significantly different at the 5% level.     

The cross‐channel flow at the entrance of Lancaster Sound

Abstract

A westward current flows along the northern side of Lancaster Sound and an eastward current flows along the southern side. A cross‐channel flow is commonly observed to link them near the eastern entrance of Lancaster Sound; this flow is modelled assuming inviscid flow and conservation of potential vorticity. It is shown that the westward decrease in depth is sufficient to cause a cross‐channel flow that couples the inflow to the outflow. The modelled cross‐channel flow takes place at a distance inside the entrance that is less than that observed for the surface current. Obviously stratification reduces the coupling of the surface current to the bathymetry. A more realistic result is obtained with the barotropic model if the bottom slope is halved.

An inviscid mean barotropic flow out of the channel is also modelled and found to be concentrated on the southern bank in order to conserve potential vorticity. It seems that barotropic instability and friction would limit the narrowing of the flow.     

Is the meander growth in the Brazil Current system off Southeast Brazil due to baroclinic instability?

Temporally-growing frontal meandering and occasional eddy-shedding is observed in the Brazil Current (BC) as it flows adjacent to the Brazilian Coast. No study of the dynamics of this phenomenon has been conducted to date in the region between 22° S and 25°S. Within this latitude range, the flow over the intermediate continental slope is marked by a current inversion at a depth that is associated with the Intermediate Western Boundary Current (IWBC). A time series analysis of 10-current-meter mooring data was used to describe a mean vertical profile for the BC-IWBC jet and a typical meander vertical structure. The latter was obtained by an empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis that showed a single mode explaining 82% of the total variance. This mode structure decayed sharply with depth, revealing that the meandering is much more vigorous within the BC domain than it is in the IWBC region. As the spectral analysis of the mode amplitude time series revealed no significant periods, we searched for dominant wavelengths. This search was done via a spatial EOF analysis on 51 thermal front patterns derived from digitized AVHRR images. Four modes were statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. Modes 3 and 4, which together explained 18% of the total variance, are associated with 266 and 338-km vorticity waves, respectively. With this new information derived from the data, the [Johns, W.E., 1988. One-dimensional baroclinically unstable waves on the Gulf Stream potential vorticity gradient near Cape Hatteras. Dyn. Atmos. Oceans 11, 323–350] one-dimensional quasi-geostrophic model was applied to the interpolated mean BC-IWBC jet. The results indicated that the BC system is indeed baroclinically unstable and that the wavelengths depicted in the thermal front analysis are associated with the most unstable waves produced by the model. Growth rates were about 0.06 (0.05) days⁻¹for the 266-km (338-km) wave. Moreover, phase speeds for these waves were low compared to the surface BC velocity and may account for remarks in the literature about growing standing or stationary meanders off southeast Brazil. The theoretical vertical structure modes associated with these waves resembled very closely to the one obtained for the current-meter mooring EOF analysis. We interpret this agreement as a confirmation that baroclinic instability is an important mechanism in meander growth in the BC system.     

Vertical Structure of Selected Turbulence Characteristics above an Urban Canopy

Summary In this paper the results of an urban measurement campaign are presented. The experiment took place from July 1995 to February 1996 in Basel, Switzerland. A total of more than 2000 undisturbed 30-minute runs of simultaneous measurements of the fluctuations of the wind vector u′, v′, w′ and the sonic temperature θ _s ′ at three different heights (z=36, 50 and 76 m a.g.l.) are analysed with respect to the integral statistics and their spectral behaviour. Estimates of the zero plane displacement height d calculated by the temperature variance method yield a value of 22 m for the two lower levels, which corresponds to 0.92 h (the mean height of the roughness elements). At all three measurement heights the dimensionless standard deviation σ _w /u _* is systematically smaller than the Monin-Obukhov similarity function for the inertial sublayer, however, deviations are smaller compared to other urban turbulence studies. The σ_θ/θ_* values follow the inertial sublayer prediction very close for the two lowest levels, while at the uppermost level significant deviations are observed. Profiles of normalized velocity and temperature variances show a clear dependence on stability. The profile of friction velocity u _* is similar to the profiles reported in other urban studies with a maximum around z/h=2.1. Spectral characteristics of the wind components in general show a clear dependence on stability and dimensionless measurement height z/h with a shift of the spectral peak to lower frequencies as thermal stability changes from stable to unstable conditions and as z/h decreases. Velocity spectra follow the −2/3 slope in the inertial subrange region and the ratios of spectral energy densities S _w (f)/S _u (f) approach the value of 4/3 required for local isotropy in the inertial subrange. Velocity spectra and spectral peaks fit best to the well established surface layer spectra from Kaimal et al. (1972) at the uppermost level at z/h=3.2. Received September 26, 1997 Revised February 15, 1998