Ordinary kriging and indicator kriging in the cartography of trace elements contamination in São Domingos mining site (Alentejo, Portugal)

The abandoned pyrite mine of São Domingos, in the southeast Portugal is still an acid mine drainage generator and a source for trace elements pollution. This study aims to evaluate and map the soils and sediments chemical pollution. With this purpose three test sites located in the vicinities of the mine were sampled for soils, sediments and mining waste materials. The samples were analysed for pH, organic carbon, iron oxides and total content of As, Cu, Cr, Hg, Pb, Sb, U, Zn, Mn, S, Fe Al, Ca, K, Mg and P. The hyperspectral image of the test sites was acquired using the aero transported sensor HymapTM. Chemical analysis and hyperspectral images data were processed to estimate the contamination maps by multivariate data analysis, ordinary kriging, cokriging and indicator kriging methodologies.The test sites located downstream the mine open pit, are highly contaminated mainly in As, Hg, Pb and Sb, but no contamination was found in the third test site, upstream the mining site. The acid mining drainage seems to be the main spreading agent of chemical contaminants mostly originating from the mine waste materials. Factorial analysis and the geostatistical methodologies allowed several approaches for the contamination cartography of mining areas.     

Use of mine spoils from Teruel coal mining district (NE,Spain)

Coal mine restoration projects increase public perception of mining companies. Spain has relatively few examples of completed opencast mine rehabilitation projects. This study seeks to obtain the use of mine spoils from coal mines in Teruel. The studied mine spoils may be used as raw material for the Spanish ceramic industry, located in the provinces of Castellon, Valencia and Teruel. This study specifically discusses the mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the Lower Cretaceous materials from coal deposits in Estercuel basin, around Teruel and Castellon in Spain. These provinces have a large ceramic industry. A characterization of mine spoils from coal deposits has been carried out. This characterization is based on the data of both mineral and chemical analysis. The mineralogical characterization was complemented with SEM/EDAX. The study of the chemical composition allows the evaluation of the applicability of the studied mine spoils to the following industries: refractory, fine clay, red clay for pavement and coating, and heavy clay. The clay used for refractory industry has the highest compositional demand. The positive results obtained on this set of preliminary tests lead us to envisage new research programs, focusing on testing these mine spoils on a semi-industrial scale.     

煤矿酸性“老窑水”低Ca/Mg成因机制

山西省阳泉市山底河煤矿“老窑水”循环系统多年水质监测数据计算结果显示,煤矿酸性“老窑水”的Ca/Mg值普遍偏低,且存在Ca/Mg值随酸化程度的增强（SO₄2?含量增加或pH减小）而减小的规律。针对这一问题,结合研究区的地球化学物源条件,通过室内试验以及野外监测水样的石膏、方解石、白云石矿物饱和指数与pH变化关系,分析煤矿酸性“老窑水”低Ca/Mg值的成因机制。研究表明:区内石炭系－二叠系的煤系地层中碳酸盐岩夹层、分散状态分布的菱镁矿、黄铁矿是“老窑水”中Ca2+、Mg2+、SO₄2?的物质来源;在黄铁矿氧化水解形成的以硫酸根为主导的酸性溶液中（pH为2.0~4.5）,代表硫酸对石膏、方解石、白云石可溶解性的饱和指数排序为石膏>方解石>白云石,受石膏在高浓度硫酸活性降低并发生沉淀、方解石溶解受Ca2+同离子效应抑制和饱和状态的平衡调节的综合影响,使Ca2+相对含量减少,由于MgSO₄溶度积大于CaSO₄,故Mg2+含量未受上述约束（或较低）,脱白云岩化反应可因Ca2+含量随石膏沉淀而继续进行,加之区内有菱镁矿的溶解,使得Mg2+相对含量增加,最终出现了镁矿酸性“老窑水” Ca/Mg值低的结果。Ca/Mg值可作为煤矿酸性“老窑水”的污染特征指标,应用于环境影响评价。      

An integrated approach to environmental risk assessment of cumulatively impacted drainage basin from mining activities in southwestern Ghana

Acid rock/mine drainage and metal leaching constitute major environmental management risks in the mining industry. This paper assesses the environmental risks due to acid rock/mine drainage, and the metal leaching potential of multiple mines of gold and manganese on the Ankobra River Drainage Basin in Southwestern Ghana. The basin is a hub of mining activity in Ghana, hosting several mines. A combination of mineralogical, and static geochemical acid drainage predictive investigation of overburden of varied geological units, complimented with hydrochemical drainage quality analysis was used to assess potential environmental risks posed by acid-generating lithologies and mine spoil. Mineralogical investigations revealed sulphide-bearing lithological units with profound compositional variations due to the incorporation of potentially toxic heavy metals and metalloids, in association with carbonates and silicates. Accounting Base Accounting (ABA) and Net acid generation potential pH (NAGpH) tests delimited two tailing sites as potentially acid generating with NAGpH of 3.5 and 4.8, respectively. Five other samples, representing specific lithological units in the stratigraphic sequence, with net acid neutralization potential ratio (NNPR) less than 5.0, were classified as being potentially acid generating according to the categorization requirement of the US Forestry Service. The rest of the samples exhibited moderate to very strong buffering capabilities. The assessment also evaluated drainage quality of the network of streams and rivers constituting the basin and identified sources of drainage contaminants. Acidic waters emanate from identified acid generating sources, while high metal load regimes were identified with both low pH waters and high pH regimes, coincident with high sulphide and carbonate alteration sites, respectively. The study results show that Zn, Cu, Ni, As, Co, Sb, SO₄ ²⁻, pH, alkalinity and conductivity are essential and adequate parameters in routine environmental risk monitoring programmes of mines in the area. Sites characterized by low pH (<5.5) with high sulphate and metal ions are suggestive of acid mine drainage, while sites with high pH (>7.5), metal ions and sulphate are suggestive of net acid neutralizing.     

煤层顶板承压含水层涌水模式与疏放水钻孔优化设计

针对煤层顶板承压含水层涌水模式不清的问题,从煤层回采过程中顶板含水层涌水的时空变化特征入手,提出顶板含水层涌水量由静态储存量和动态补给量构成,认为静态储存量主要受来压步距、顶板垮落和导水裂隙(合称冒裂)影响区含水层厚度、含水层给水度控制,动态补给量主要受冒裂影响区外围含水层厚度、渗透性流场中水力梯度和过水断面面积控制;根据导水裂隙波及含水层情况,将顶板含水层涌水模式划分为井底进水的触及井涌水、井壁及井底进水的非完整井涌水和井壁进水的完整井涌水3种模式,并基于地下水渗流理论给出不同涌水模式下动态补给水量计算公式;针对以往疏放水钻孔数量多及疏放水量大的问题,以实现工作面顶板含水层静态储存量疏放后动态补给量可控为目的,提出冒裂区高度控制钻孔深度、单孔水位影响半径控制钻孔布置间距、钻孔疏放水量稳定时间控制超前疏放时间的疏放水钻孔优化设计理念,对疏放水及疏放钻孔布置进行优化,形成系统的顶板含水层水疏放体系。研究结果丰富了煤层顶板含水层涌水量计算和控制方法,对顶板水害防控具有实际的指导意义。      

山东淄博煤矿区环境中多环芳烃的初步研究

对山东淄博煤矿区的煤、煤矸石、矿坑排水、煤矸石淋滤水以及煤矿地下水中多环芳烃的含量进行了测试研究。结果表明,该煤矿区的煤及煤矸石中含有多环芳烃;矿坑排水、煤矸石淋滤水及地下水中的多环芳烃与煤层及煤矸石的淋滤有关,煤矿开采引起的多环芳烃污染应引起重视。      

Metal partitioning in sediments and mineralogical controls on the acid mine drainage in Ribeira da Água Forte (Aljustrel,Iberian Pyrite Belt,Southern Portugal)

This work focuses on the geochemical processes taking place in the acid drainage in the Ribeira da Água Forte, located in the Aljustrel mining area in the Iberian Pyrite Belt. The approach involved water and stream sediment geochemical analyses, as well as other techniques such as sequential extraction, Mössbauer spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Ribeira da Água Forte is a stream that drains the area of the old mine dumps of the Aljustrel mine, which have for decades been a source of acid waters. This stream flows to the north for a little over than 10 km, but mixes with a reduced, organic-rich, high pH waste water from the municipal waste water pools of the village. This water input produces two different results in the chemistry of the stream depending upon the season: (i) in the winter season, effective water mixing takes place, and the flux of acid water from the mine dumps is continuous, resulting in the immediate precipitation of the Fe from the acid waters; (ii) during the summer season, acid drainage is interrupted and only the waste water feeds the stream, resulting in the reductive dissolution of Fe hydroxides and hydroxysulfates in the stream sediments, releasing significant quantities of metals into solution. Throughout the year, water pH stays invariably within 4.0–4.5 for several meters downstream of this mixing zone even when the source waters come from the waste water pools, which have a pH around 8.4. The coupled interplay of dissolution and precipitation of the secondary minerals (hydroxides and sulfates), keeps the system pH between 3.9 and 4.5 all along the stream. In particular, evidence suggests that schwertmannite may be precipitating and later decomposing into Fe hydroxides to sustain the stream water pH at those levels. While Fe content decreases by 50% from solution, the most important trace metals are only slightly attenuated before the solution mixes with the Ribeira do Rôxo stream waters. Concentrations of As are the only ones effectively reduced along the flow path. Partitioning of Cu, Zn and Pb in the contaminated sediments also showed different behavior. Specific/non-specific adsorption is relevant for Cu and Zn in the upstream branch of Ribeira da Água Forte with acid drainage conditions, whereas the mixture with the waste water causes that the association of these metals with oxyhydroxide to be more important. Metals bound to oxyhydroxides are on the order of 60–70% for Pb, 50% for Cu and 30–60% for Zn. Organic matter is only marginally important around the waste water input area showing 2–8% Cu bound to this phase. These results also show that, although the mixing process of both acid and organic-rich waters can suppress and briefly mitigate some adverse effects of acid drainage, the continuing discharge of these waste waters into a dry stream promotes the remobilization of metals fixed in the secondary solid phases in the stream bed back into solution, a situation that can hardly be amended back to its original state.     

厚砂砾含水层下特厚煤层综放开采防治水技术研究

水帘洞煤矿地表水系发育,煤系地层上覆的白垩系洛河组和宜君组巨厚层状砂砾岩含水层,含水丰富,对矿井的安全开采构成了威胁。在详细分析矿区顶板含水层特征、隔水层岩性组合特征及隔水性能基础上,采用比拟法计算了综放条件下顶板导水裂隙带发育高度,并用数值法研究了不同采宽条件下顶板导水裂缝带发育规律,预计了工作面涌水量,为评价煤矿综放条件下工作面安全回采可行性提供了科学的依据。     

Environmental geochemistry of the Gulf Creek copper mine area, north-eastern New South Wales, Australia

 Past mining and smelting of sulphide ore (pyrite-chalcopyrite-sphalerite) at the abandoned Gulf Creek mine has resulted in a stream highly contaminated by acid mine drainage (pH: 2.2–3.4), as well as degradation of local soil and vegetation. Physical dispersion of secondary metal-bearing minerals from abandoned ore and waste dumps into Gulf Creek and adsorption and coprecipitation of dissolved metals and metalloids in the stream bed cause elevated Ag, As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn values in stream sediments. The bioavailability of individual heavy metals to freshwater organisms changes downstream, however, selective bioaccumulation processes in algae reject readily bioavailable Zn and concentrate less bioavailable Cu. Polluted soils in the vicinity of the mine and smelter sites are subject to continuing soil erosion and either support no vegetation, or a depauperate flora with certain species showing bioaccumulation of metals and resistance to high metal contents. Rehabilitation of disturbed areas should involve covering and sealing sulphidic mine waste or removal of ore and waste dumps, installation of a physical and chemical plant or construction of a wetland environment (plus anoxic lime drains), and import of topsoil and planting of local, metal-tolerant plant species. Received: 17 March 1998 / Accepted: 6 October 1998     

人类活动影响下娘子关岩溶水系统地球化学演化

娘子关泉是我国北方最大的岩溶泉之一,也是阳泉市工农业生产和人民生活的重要供水水源。地下水地球化学演化分析表明,在地下水由补给区向排泄区运移过程中,除固有的水岩相互作用外,由于受采矿活动和地表水入渗补给的影响,岩溶水由低离子含量的HCO3-SO4或HCO3型水逐渐成为SO4型、SO4-HCO3型和SO4-HCO3-Cl型水。在泉群集中排泄区,区域流动系统与局部流动系统的地下水发生混合作用,最终形成了水质相对良好的HCO3-SO4型或SO4-HCO3型岩溶泉水。在此过程中,地下水对方解石和白云石也由最初的溶解作用演变为沉淀再结晶。尽管石膏呈持续溶解现象,但在采煤活动严重影响区域,石膏的沉淀也可能出现。地球化学模拟表明,在岩溶含水层中,地下水首先以方解石（白云石）的溶解为主;随着石膏溶解数量的增加,方解石（白云石）的溶解开始受到抑制,进而发生沉淀,石膏的溶解成为控制地下水水化学的主导过程。当矿坑水混入时,地下水相对石膏过饱和,地下水对碳酸盐岩含水介质的溶蚀能力得到增强。随着水岩反应的演进,铁氢氧化物大量沉淀,通过共沉淀和吸附作用去除了地下水中的重金属类污染物。      

Karstification below dam sites: a model of increasing leakage from reservoirs

Unnaturally steep hydraulic gradients below foundations or across abutments of dams may cause solutional widening of fractures in karstifiable rocks of carbonates or gypsum. This could cause increasing leakage which may endanger the performance of the construction. To investigate this problem recent models on natural karstification have been applied. We have performed numerical simulations of leakage below a model dam with a grouting curtain reaching down to 100 m below its impermeable foundation of 100 m width. Water is impounded to a depth of 100 m. The dam is located on a terrane of fractured rock dissected by two perpendicular sets of fractures with spacing of 5 m, and with a log-normal distribution of their initial aperture widths of about 0.02 cm. In the first state of karstification these fractures widen slowly, until a pathway of widened fractures below the grouting has reached the downstream side with exit widths of about 1 mm. This causes a dramatic increase of leakage, and turbulent flow sets in. After this breakthrough at time T, in the second state of karstification, dissolution rates become even along these fractures and cause widening of about 0.1 cm year^-1 for limestone, and at least of 1 cm year^-1 for gypsum. This leads to an increase in leakage to excessive rates within 25 years for limestone, but only 5 years for gypsum. We have performed a sensitivity analysis of breakthrough time T for the various parameters which determine the problem. The result shows breakthrough times in the order of several tens of years for both limestone and gypsum. We have also modelled leakage to caves or karst channels 200 m below the bottom of the reservoir, which could induce the formation of sinkholes. The model can be extended to more realistic settings. In conclusion, our results support the prediction that increasing leakage at dam sites can be caused by recent karstification which is activated after filling the reservoir, possibly leading to serious problems within its lifetime.     

Groundwater salinization of the Sfax superficial aquifer,Tunisia

Groundwater salinization has become a crucial environmental problem worldwide and is considered the most widespread form of groundwater contamination. The origin of salinity in the coastal aquifer of the Sfax Basin, Tunisia was investigated by means of chemical analyses of groundwater samples from 65 wells. The groundwater samples present a clear gradation from calcium sulphate salinization to that of sodium chloride. The saturation indices for calcite and gypsum, and binary diagrams of different ions, together with multivariate analysis, indicate the existence of various salinization processes such as: dissolution of gypsum and calcite dispersed through the reservoir rock; ion exchange; intensive agricultural practices that produce effluents that infiltrate to the saturated zone; and sea-water intrusion, enhanced by excessive withdrawal of groundwater.     

矿山尾砂表生地球化学过程实验研究

在对石菉铜锡矿和河台金矿层砂矿物物相及化学组成研究基础上，利用自行设计的大口径淋滤柱开展了淋滤实验和静置浸泡(溶解)实验。研究结果表明，矿山层矿排放水不一定是酸性，它取决于矿床脉石矿物、赋矿的岩石及其次生蚀变矿物的酸缓冲能力。矿山排放水的组成是地表或地下水与矿山层砂中矿物和氢氧化物及非品态物质相互作用的结果，元素的赋存状态对其被淋滤的程度有很大影响。优先流能使重金属大量带出，因此要尽量防止优先流的形成。研究结果可为矿山综合整治和修复提供重要依据。     

Experimental Study on Mine Spoils During Superficial Geochemical Processes

Based on the mineral and chemical compositions of spoils taken from the Shilu Cu-Mo deposit and Hetai gold deposit ,the leaching and batch experiments were made on spoils taken from these two deposits using the leaching column designed by the authors.The experimental results showed that it is not always true that the imine drainage is acidic.Its acidity depends on acid-buffering capacity of gangue,host rock and its alteration mineral assemblage.The composi-tion of the drainage water is related with the interaction between superficial or underground water and solid materials in the spoils,including minerals,hydroxides and amorphous substances.The leaching extent of the element is related with its occurrence form in the deposit.The prefer-ential flow results in leaching-out of heavy metals in large amounts.So it is important to prevent the generating of preferential flow in the system.The results will provide very important grounds for the comprehensive management of land and ecological rehabilitation of the mine site.     

Geological and environmental implications in the reclamation of limestone quarries in Sierra de Callosa (Alicante,Spain)

Sierra de Callosa have an area of 8 km² and a maximum altitude of 566 masl. Geologically, it is found to be primarily comprised of carbonated rocks. Mine spoils coming from limestone quarries extraction are often used in the working reclamation process. These materials could be actually employed profitably once conveniently amended with organic matter. A study on the temporary evolution of nutrients and several physical–chemical parameters in a mineral waste amended with municipal solid waste (MSW) compost has been carried out. The effect of incorporating such waste to mine spoils in an arid gravel quarry has been studied, quantifying the temporal evolution of nutrients and several physical–chemical parameters in the mixture. Three plots have been prepared with mine spoils proceeding from a limestone quarry located in the south of the province of Alicante (municipality of Redován). These plots have been amended with 3 kg/m² of MSW compost. Texture, pH, electrical conductivity, oxidizable organic matter, N-Kjeldahl, available P, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn were analysed. The results reflected the contribution of nutrients to the substrate after the MSW addition. The variability of the information indicated the heterogeneity of the MSW composition, as well as the difficulty of obtaining a homogeneous MSW mixture–mineral waste.     

娘子关泉域岩溶水SO42-、δ34S特征及其环境意义

在分析区域地质、水文地质条件及水化学同位素的基础上,研究了山西娘子关泉域岩溶水的SO42-、硫同位素分布特征。研究表明:（1）泉域西北、西南地区岩溶水的SO42-主要来源于石膏的溶解;（2）泉域中部汇流区岩溶水的SO42-含量高而δ34S值低,其中的SO42-主要来源于煤系矿坑水,这是因为温河、桃河及南川河沿岸的岩溶水接受了被矿坑水污染的河水的渗漏补给以及部分地区受到钻孔串层污染;（3）娘子关泉群中城西泉水中的SO42-主要来源于煤系矿坑水,而五龙泉和集泉站水中的SO42-主要来源于石膏的溶解;（4）泉域东北部及东部河流沿岸以外的地区,岩溶水中的SO42-主要来源于大气降水、石膏溶解,并受到所处地层岩性的影响。      

铜陵矿山酸性排水及固体废弃物中的重金属元素

在调查中国铜陵凤凰山铜矿和新桥硫铁矿两种不同类型矿山固体废弃物特征的基础上,研究了矿山尾矿和废石产生酸性排水的可能性及其差异以及矿山固体废弃物中重金属元素的赋存形式。结果表明,凤凰山铜矿的尾矿基本不产生矿山酸性排水,而新桥硫铁矿采矿废石产生矿山酸性排水,并且凤凰山铜矿的尾矿和新桥硫铁矿采矿废石中重金属元素的赋存形式也有差异,前者重金属Cu、Pb、Zn、Cd、As、Hg主要赋存于硅酸盐态中,而后者在还原态中有较高的含量,这反映了在地表条件下尾矿中大量重金属元素已经发生了迁移,而采矿废石已经开始氧化,且酸性排水的存在更有利于废石中重金属元素的迁移和扩散,进而导致矿区周围环境的污染。     

Approche des relations tectonique-karst-hydrodynamisme par l'analyse de traçages réalisés dans l'aquifère crayeux du Boulonnais (Escalles,Nord de la France)

In 1989, a tracer test was conducted by injecting uranine into the unsaturated zone of the chalk aquifer of the Escalles area (Boulonnais, northern France). The high transfer velocity (42 m h^–1) was found to be inconsistent with previous information on the hydronamic behaviour of the chalk aquifer. Therefore it is almost certain that faults and fractures must play a major role in the groundwater flows on a local scale although their action may be hidden on a regional scale. In March 1997, an experiment involving a triple junction into the saturated part of the chalk aquifer was carried out. This made it possible: (1) to define with great accuracy the groundwater flow directions and associated velocities, thus improving the water table map; (2) to establish rules concerning the unsaturated parts; (3) to distinguish between fissural and karstic flows and (4) to understand, at least partly, the role played by some faults.     

Geochemistry of iron ochres and mine waters from Levant Mine,Cornwall

The geochemistry of metal-rich mine waters and mineral precipitates from the Levant mine, Cornwall, has been examined. Sulphide oxidation at Levant mine has produced a wide range of secondary sulphides, oxides, chlorides, sulphates and carbonates in a gossan environment. The mine waters display a wide variation in alkalinity, pH, chloride, sulphate, sodium, potassium and heavy metal content which can be explained by variable degrees of mixing between acidic, metal-rich, rock drainage waters and neutral to alkaline sea waters. Transition metals are soluble in the acidic mine waters with concentrations up to 665 mg/l Cu, 41 mg/l Zn, 76 mg/l Mn, 6 mg/l Co and >2500 mg/l total Fe. The production of acid rock drainage and leaching of metals can be related to sulphide oxidation. Where these metal-rich acidic waters mix with infiltrated sea water, neutralization occurs and some metals are precipitated (principally Cu). Where pools of mine drainage are stagnant native copper and cuprite are precipitated, frequently observed replacing iron pipes and rail tracks and wooden shaft supports, due to electrode potential differences. In these solutions, dissolved copper species are also reduced by interaction with wood-derived organic species. Precipitation of iron oxyhydroxides, caused by a pH increase, also occurs and leads. to coprecipitation of other metals, including Cd, Co, Ph, Mn, Ag and Zn, thus limiting the release of dissolved metals in solution from the mine. However, the release of suspended metal-rich ochres in mine discharge waters (with high Ph, Zn, Cd, Mn, Ni, Sn, Sb, As, Bi, Cu, Co and Ag) will still present a potential environmental hazard.