Environmental impacts of the Norse settlement: palaeoenvironmental data from Myvatnssveit, northern Iceland

Lawson, I. T., Gathorne‐Hardy, F. J., Church, M. J., Newton, A. J., Edwards, K. J., Dugmore, A. J. & Einarsson, Á. 2007 (January): Environmental impacts of the Norse settlement: palaeoenvironmental data from Mývatnssveit, northern Iceland. Boreas, Vol. 36, pp. 1–19. Oslo. ISSN 0300–9483. The first stratigraphically continuous pollen profile spanning the Norse and Medieval periods from the archaeologically‐rich Mvatnssveit region of northern Iceland is presented. Detailed analyses were made of the tephra, sediment characteristics, pollen and chironomids of a 3 kyr sediment sequence from Helluvastjörn, a small, shallow lake. The pollen data show a steady decline in the percentage abundance of tree birch (Betula pubescens) pollen between the Norse settlement (landnám, c. AD 870) and c. AD 1300, a pattern that contrasts with the abrupt fall in birch pollen percentages immediately following the Norse colonization at almost all previously studied sites in Iceland. Some lines of evidence suggest that the gradual birch decline could be a result of reworking of soil pollen, but independent evidence suggests that this may not necessarily be the case. The pollen record indicates that birch woodland was replaced by acidophilic taxa (notably Empetrum nigrum and Sphagnum), again contrasting with the more usual pattern of Poaceae expansion seen in post‐landnám pollen diagrams from mires close to farm sites. Chironomid and Pediastrum accumulation data show that the limnic environment became more productive immediately after landnám, probably because of anthropogenic disturbance. An increase in sedimentation rate after landnám appears initially to have been caused by increased lake productivity, while reworked inorganic soil materials became a significant contributor to the sediments after c. AD 1200. The data suggest that the impact of settlement on terrestrial vegetation may have been more variable than previously thought, while freshwater ecosystems experienced significant and rapid change.     

Assessing the role of winter grazing in historic land degradation,Mývatnssveit,northeast Iceland

This paper assesses the contribution of historical and traditional winter grazing to long‐term land degradation in northeast Iceland. To do so, indicators of soil erosion from two contrasting historical winter grazing areas, set in a tephrochronological framework, are compared against their temporal and regional land degradation contexts. The observations made indicate distinctive and different landscape responses to historical winter grazing depending on location. In both study areas, there is an accelerated level of wind and water erosion with settlement at ca. A.D. 874 through to A.D. 1477. One of these areas had a subsequent reduction in erosion rates to considerably below the regional average, possibly as a result of adaptive land management; the second, more inherently sensitive area, is now subarctic desert. These findings confirm early land management practices as a major factor in Icelandic land degradation, they contribute to explanations of early settlement success and failure, and highlight the significance of historical approaches in addressing contemporary issues of land degradation and conservation responses. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Perspective of landscape change following early settlement (landnám) in Svalbarðstunga,northeastern Iceland

A series of peat monoliths was collected from Hjálmarvík, Kúðá and Bægístaðir, three abandoned farm sites located on a transect extending from the coast to 18 km inland in the Svalbarðstunga region (northeastern Iceland) in order to document the impact of human occupation and patterns of land use on landscape change and vegetation. Svalbarðstunga is of considerable interest because of the geographical and ecological features that distinguish it from other regions of Iceland, in particular by the more direct influence of the cold East Greenland Current (EGC). Plant and insect macrofossils and diatoms identified in peat monoliths provided proxy indicators of human settlement and land use that in some cases corroborate, and in others expand upon, existing archaeological and historical dates. Based on the presence of ecofacts (calcined bones, fish bones and charcoal), synanthropic insects and some anthropogenic plant‐indicators (e.g. weeds), we showed that there was a consistent occupation and use of the coastal site of Hjálmarvík since AD 970. At Kúðá, the scenario is quite different. Two periods of occupation or land use were identified: from prior to c. AD 960 to 1190 and from c. AD 1650 to 1870. In the 15th and into the 16th centuries, the decrease in the deposition of traces of fuel wastes around the inland farm sites (Kúðá and Bægístaðir) suggests that they were used much less frequently. The decline of such proxies for human occupation occurred shortly before the occurrence of the coldest conditions from the 16th to the 17th centuries as well as prior to the V1477 eruption, suggesting that these natural factors may not have been the primary or unique driver of changing modes of tenancy. A scenario of famine‐related depopulation would have played a significant role in this decrease in the human impact on vegetation.     

Norse–Inuit interaction and landscape change in southern Greenland? A geochronological,Pedological, and Palynological investigation

Ruins representing both medieval Norse and Inuit (Thule culture) settlements can be found together on the coast at Sandhavn (59°59′ N, 44°46′ W), Greenland. The site presents a rare opportunity to investigate the character of past contact and interaction between these two peoples. Soils‐based, radiocarbon, and palynological analyses demonstrate the creation of hortic anthrosols within Norse home‐fields used between the mid‐11th and late 14th centuries A.D. Irrigation channels have been identified within the home‐fields, while rising grass pollen influx reveals intensification in hay production over the period ca. A.D. 1260–1350 despite climatic deterioration setting in around this time. Floor deposits and wall packing from an Inuit winter house returned dates of cal. A.D. 1220–1290 (2σ), yet no direct landscape‐based evidence for Inuit activity could be determined. Although the exact nature of the relationship between Norse and Thule at Sandhavn remains unclear, the role of this site as a harbor and possible trading area may have attracted Inuit settlers keen to participate in European trade networks. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Late Holocene environmental change in southwest Greenland – fossil insect assemblages from Tasiusaq

Palaeoecological research based on insect remains from the vicinity of a Norse farm at Tasiusaq in southwest Greenland provides information on the area surrounding the farm and new information on extirpations attributed to human impact. Anthropochorous species (spread by people) from the farm faunas are lacking in the assemblages, and the natural faunas provide evidence of moderate exploitation of the landscape as a result of activities related to livestock. The gaps in the stratigraphic sequence of the site are interpreted to be the result of peat‐cutting for structural turfs or fuel, and the implications of this activity are discussed. Insect assemblages from Tasiusaq, and studies from Norse sites in Greenland, do not provide clear evidence for any distinct climatic event during the medieval period. In contrast to what happened on other islands of the North Atlantic, insects introduced to Greenland by the Norse did not find suitable natural habitats and did not survive after the demise of the farms. However, the landscape did not return entirely to its pre‐Landnám biota after the human colonizers disappeared from it. Our findings provide new evidence for the consequences of the Norse and their agricultural practices on the Greenlandic environment and additional information on the fate of insect introductions in the area during the late Holocene.     

Vegetational response to human colonisation of the coastal and volcanic environments of Ketilsstaðir, southern Iceland

Tephra-dated, high-resolution pollen profiles from Ketilsstaðir, southern Iceland, indicate a largely unwooded pre-settlement environment, a probable consequence of the exposed coastal location. The degree of change associated with the Norse landnám is more limited than in many Icelandic pollen diagrams. There are three main periods of change in the post-settlement vegetational development of the area. Firstly, Norse settlement affected the hydrology of the bog, resulting in the near-disappearance of Sphagnum and agricultural activity led to a reduction of some species (e.g. Angelica spp. and, Salix). Secondly, the establishment of probable permanent settlement in the mid-11th century AD initiated expansion of such apophytic taxa as Plantago spp. Lactuceae, Ranunculus spp. and Pteridophytes. Thirdly, the ≥ 10 cm thick Katla tephra, deposited in AD 1357, enhanced drainage of the bog surface, favouring dryland taxa (e.g. Poaceae, Galium and Lactuceae). The tephra deposit and the associated drainage probably caused or contributed to the local extinction of the wetland beetle Hydraena britteni. The study has enabled a series of natural and humanly-related issues to be addressed including tephra-vegetation relationships, the anthropogenic reduction in plant diversity, and comparisons between historical and environmental settlement records.     

Holocene sediment properties of the East Greenland and Iceland continental shelves bordering Denmark Strait (64–68°N), North Atlantic

The oceanographic Polar Front separates the East Greenland and Iceland margins. Surface water temperatures across Denmark Strait vary by 8–12 °C and represent one of the steepest oceanographic gradients on earth. The East Greenland margin is a polar environment, with extensive sea‐ice cover and calving glacier margins; in contrast, the Iceland shelf is much more temperate, and freshwater run‐off is a key component in land–ocean sediment transfers. Average sediment properties from these two contrasting climate and oceanographic continental shelf environments are compared in the spatial domain at 13 sites; the data represent the last 10 000 radiocarbon years of `normal' marine sedimentation for the two regions. The two regions have similar average rates of sediment accumulation (around 43·5 cm kyr<sup>?1</sup>), so that this key variable is factored out in explaining any differences in sediment properties. Dry sediment density, moisture content, hygroscopic moisture, total organic carbon and carbonate contents, mass magnetic susceptibility and the percentages of sand and silt are compared focusing on: (1) median values for sediment properties; and (2) downcore variability, measured by the coefficient of variation (CV). There are significant differences in all but one (hygroscopic moisture) of the sediment properties between Iceland and East Greenland; in four cases, the sense of the differences was not as predicted. In terms of downcore variation (CV), no difference was found between the two regions, nor between the 13 sites, whereas there are some significant differences between the variables. Carbonate and mass magnetic susceptibility have the largest spreads, and moisture content and dry sediment density are the least variable. Protocols are developed to identify the `type core' in a regional series of sites. The results indicate a need to develop a regional perspective on sediment properties, both as inputs to models of sedimentary processes in different polar/arctic environments, and as an indication of which sediment properties might be best suited for palaeoenvironmental downcore time series.     

Geoarchaeological and chronostratigraphical investigations of open‐air sites in the Geelbek Dunes,South Africa

The Geelbek Dunes located north of Cape Town, South Africa, are an active, northward migrating dune field. Interdunal deflation hollows temporarily expose former land surfaces that are associated with archaeological sites. These open‐air sites shed light on large‐scale patterns of Middle and Later Stone Age settlement and augment the information gained from well‐stratified, but spatially limited caves, rock shelters, and coastal shell middens. Based on paleopedological and sedimentological parameters, three former land surfaces were identified and associated with different assemblages. A chronostratigraphy of the various land surfaces was established by applying optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating. The youngest former land surface is represented by a dune generation (AD2) which stabilized at a maximum of 5 ka. An older dune generation (AD1) shows a more heterogeneous age pattern where deposition started at ca. 27 ka with a maximum estimated age of stabilization at ca. 10 ka. Both of these dune generations overlie a weathered calcrete complex of Middle to Late Pleistocene age. While the third dune generation (AD0) was observed between underlying calcrete layers, samples taken from this unit could not be dated. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Pedo‐Geochemical Signatures of Archeological Sites in the Tapirapé‐Aquiri National Forest in Marabá, Amazonia,Brazil

The present study aims to interpret the occupation of terra firme (nonflooded uplands) archeological sites located at Tapirapé‐Aquiri National Forest in the Brazilian state of Pará, through an integrated analysis of pedological, archeological, and geochemical data. We focus on seven archaeological sites, selected among 22 identified in the region. Radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating indicate distinct periods of occupation over the past ∼6000 years, and the pedo‐geochemical data identify intra‐ and inter‐site differences in soil. Archaeological, chronometric, and pedo‐geochemical data provide a basis for the functional classification of archeological sites found in the region and help to identify specific human activity areas. The results lead us to infer that many of the archeological sites were the result of multiple occupations that left a persistent pedological signature on the landscape.     

Soil management in pre‐Hispanic raised field systems: Micromorphological evidence from Hacienda Zuleta,Ecuador

Soils‐based evidence derived from thin section micromorphology is used to explore contrasts in pre‐Hispanic and Hispanic arable land management practices associated with raised fields in an inter‐Andean valley of Ecuador. Differences in textural pedofeature characteristics suggest that, where they are found in the same locality, camellón systems were more intensively manured and cultivated than wachu systems. Both, however, were more intensively managed than traditional Hispanic arable fields. The importance of the camellón in pre‐Hispanic agriculture is emphasized by soils‐based evidence that highlights the efforts made to clear these fields of volcanic ash after the Quilotoa eruption of ca. A.D. 1280. This research suggests that, in an andosol context, pre‐Hispanic and Hispanic arable land management practices leave relict and fossil soil micromorphology features that can be used to interpret land use intensities. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

High resolution paleoenvironmental and chronological investigations of Norse landnám at Tasiusaq, Eastern Settlement, Greenland

High-resolution paleoenvironmental data from a peat profile with a small pollen source area are used to reconstruct the impacts of landnám on vegetation and soils at a Norse farm complex (∅2 at Tasiusaq) comprising two farms in the Eastern Settlement of Greenland. Analyses include the AMS ¹⁴C dating of plant macrofossil samples and the use of Bayesian radiocarbon calibration to construct improved age-depth models for Norse cultural horizons. The onset of a regional landnám may be indicated by the clearance of Betula pubescens woodland immediately prior to local settlement. The latter is dated to AD 950-1020 (2σ) and is characterised by possible burning of Betula glandulosa scrub to provide grassland pasture for domestic stock. Clearance and grazing resulted in accelerated levels of soil erosion at a westerly farm. This was followed by an easterly migration of settlement and agriculture. Site constraints prevent an assessment of the demise of the easterly farm, but pressures of overgrazing and land degradation may have been the major factors responsible for the abandonment of the earlier farm.     

Distribution,sediment magnetism and geochemistry of the Saksunarvatn (10 180 ± 60 cal. yr BP) tephra in marine,lake, and terrestrial sediments,northwest Iceland

In 1997, seismic surveys in the troughs off northwest and north Iceland indicated the presence of a major, regional sub‐bottom reflector that can be traced over large areas of the shelf. Cores taken in 1997, and later in 1999 on the IMAGES V cruise, penetrated through the reflector. In core MD99‐2269 in Húnaflóaáll, this reflector is shown to be represented by a basaltic tephra with a geochemical signature and radiocarbon age correlative with the North Atlantic‐wide Saksunarvatn tephra. We trace this tephra throughout northwest Iceland in a series of marine and lake cores, as well as in terrestrial sediments; it forms a layer 1 to 25 cm thick of fine‐ to medium‐grained basaltic volcanic shards. The base of the tephra unit is always sharp but visual inspection and other measurements (carbonate and total organic carbon weight %) indicate a more diffuse upper boundary associated with bioturbation and with sediment reworking. Off northwest Iceland the Saksunarvatn tephra has distinct sediment magnetic properties. This is evident as a dramatic reduction in magnetic susceptibility, an increase in the frequency dependant magnetic susceptibility and ‘hard’ magnetisation in a −0.1T IRM backfield. Geochemical analyses from 11 sites indicate a tholeiitic basalt composition, similar to the geochemistry of a tephra found in the Greenland ice‐core that dates to 10 180 ± 60 cal. yr BP, and which was correlated with the 9000 ¹⁴C yr BP Saksunarvatn tephra. We present accelerator mass spectrometry ¹⁴C dates from the marine sites, which indicate that the ocean reservoir correction is close to ca. 400 yr at 9000 ¹⁴C yr BP off northwest Iceland. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Geostatistical and multi‐elemental analysis of soils to interpret land‐use history in the Hebrides,Scotland

In the absence of documentary evidence about settlement form and agricultural practice in northwest Scotland before the mid‐18th century, a geoarchaeological approach to reconstructing medieval land use and settlement form is presented here. This study applies multielemental analysis to soils previously collected from a settlement site in the Hebrides and highlights the importance of a detailed knowledge of the local soil environment and the cultural context. Geostatistical methods were used to analyze the spatial variability and distribution of a range of soil properties typically associated with geoarchaeological investigations. Semivariograms were produced to determine the spatial dependence of soil properties, and ordinary kriging was undertaken to produce prediction maps of the spatial distribution of these soil properties and enable interpolation over nonsampled locations in an attempt to more fully elucidate former land‐use activity and settlement patterns. The importance of identifying the spatial covariance of elements and the need for several lines of physical and chemical evidence is highlighted. For many townships in the Hebrides, whose precise location and layout prior to extensive land reorganization in the late 18th–early 19th century is not recoverable through plans, multi‐elemental analysis of soils can offer a valuable prospective and diagnostic tool. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Do paleoclimate proxies agree? A test comparing 19 late Holocene climate and sea‐ice reconstructions from Icelandic marine and lake sediments

Geochemical, mineralogical and biological indicators preserved in sediments are widely used to reconstruct past climate change, but proxies differ in the degree to which their utility as climate indicators has been validated via laboratory experiments, modern spatial calibrations, or down‐core comparisons with instrumental climate data. Multi‐proxy studies provide another means of evaluating interpretations of proxies. This paper presents a multi‐proxy assessment comparing 19 sub‐centennially resolved late Holocene proxy records, covering the period 300–1900 AD, from seven Icelandic marine and lacustrine core sites. We employ simple statistical comparisons between proxy reconstructions to evaluate their correlations over time and, ultimately, their utility as proxies for regional climate. Proxies examined include oxygen isotopic composition of benthic and planktonic foraminifera, abundance of the sea‐ice biomarker IP₂₅, allochthonous quartz in marine sediments (a proxy for drift ice around Iceland), marine carbonate abundance, total organic carbon concentration, chironomid assemblages, lacustrine biogenic silica and carbon/nitrogen ratios in lake sediments. Most of the examined proxy records, including temperature and sea‐ice proxies, correlate strongly with each other over multi‐centennial timescales, and thus do appear to record changes in regional climate. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Two millennia of glacier advances from southern Iceland dated by tephrochronology

Two glaciers at Eyjafjallajökull, south Iceland, provide a record of multiple episodes of glacier advance since the Sub-Atlantic period, ca. 2000 yr ago. A combination of tephrochronology and lichenometry was applied to date ice-marginal moraines, tills and meltwater deposits. Two glacier advances occurred before the 3rd century AD, others in the 9th and 12th centuries bracketing the Medieval Warm Period, and five groups of advances occurred between AD 1700 and 1930, within the Little Ice Age. The advances of Eyjafjallajökull before the Norse settlement (ca. AD 870) were synchronous with other glacier advances identified in Iceland. In contrast, medieval glacier advances between the 9th and 13th centuries are firmly identified for the first time in Iceland. This challenges the view of a prolonged Medieval Warm Period and supports fragmentary historical data that indicate significant medieval episodes of cooler and wetter conditions in Iceland. An extended and more detailed glacier chronology of the mid- and late Little Ice Age is established, which demonstrates that some small outlet glaciers achieved their Little Ice Age maxima around AD 1700. While Little Ice Age advances across Iceland appear to synchronous, the timing of the maximum differs between glacier type and region.     

How sensitive are river systems to climate and land‐use changes? A model‐based evaluation

Simulated Holocene sediment discharges from a high‐resolution cellular model of river evolution in northern England, driven by a peat‐bog proxy climate and palynological based land‐cover record, show a very close similarity to alluviation phases evident in British river valleys. Independent validation of the model indicates that British river systems have been surprisingly sensitive to short term (ca. 10² yr) climate fluctuations, although river dynamics also have been modulated by land‐use change and sediment supply. This has important implications for understanding alluvial system evolution, establishing controlling factors and, most importantly, forecasting river response to future climate and land‐use changes. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Holocene and latest Pleistocene climate and glacier fluctuations in Iceland

Multiproxy climate records from Iceland document complex changes in terrestrial climate and glacier fluctuations through the Holocene, revealing some coherent patterns of change as well as significant spatial variability. Most studies on the Last Glacial Maximum and subsequent deglaciation reveal a dynamic Iceland Ice Sheet (IIS) that responded abruptly to changes in ocean currents and sea level. The IIS broke up catastrophically around 15 ka as the Polar Front migrated northward and sea level rose. Indications of regional advance or halt of the glaciers are seen in late Alleröd/early Younger Dryas time and again in PreBoreal time. Due to the apparent rise of relative sea level in Iceland during this time, most sites contain evidence for fluctuating, tidewater glacier termini occupying paleo fjords and bays. The time between the end of the Younger Dryas and the Preboreal was characterized by repeated jökulhlaups that eroded glacial deposits. By 10.3 ka, the main ice sheet was in rapid retreat across the highlands of Iceland. The Holocene thermal maximum (HTM) was reached after 8 ka with land temperatures estimated to be 3 °C higher than the 1961–1990 reference, and net precipitation similar to modern. Such temperatures imply largely ice-free conditions across Iceland in the early to mid-Holocene. Several marine and lacustrine sediment climate proxies record substantial summer temperature depression between 8.5 and 8 ka, but no moraines have been detected from that time. Termination of the HTM and onset of Neoglacial cooling took place sometime after 6 ka with increased glacier activity between 4.5 and 4.0 ka, intensifying between 3.0 and 2.5 ka. Although a distinct warming during the Medieval Warm Period is not dramatically apparent in Icelandic records, the interval from ca AD 0 to 1200 is commonly characterized by relative stability with slow rates of change. The literature most commonly describes Little Ice Age moraines (ca AD 1250–1900) as representing the most extensive ice margins since early Holocene deglaciation, with temperature depressions of 1–2 °C compared to the AD 1961–1990 average. Steep north–south and west–east temperature gradients are reconstructed in the Holocene records of Iceland, suggesting a strong maritime influence on the terrestrial climate of Iceland.     

Anthropogenic versus climatic control in a high-resolution 1500-year chironomid stratigraphy from a southwestern Greenland lake

We performed a high-resolution study of chironomid assemblages in a sediment core retrieved from Lake Igaliku in southern Greenland. The well-dated core is located within the former Norse Eastern Settlement and covered the last 1500 yr. The comparison of chironomid stratigraphy (PCA axis scores) with instrumental temperature data, land use history and organic matter in the sediment over the last 140 yr suggested that the primary changes in chironomid fauna in 1988 ± 2 yr were driven by the shift to modern agriculture in the catchment. This unprecedented change in chironomid fauna was most likely triggered by a shift in in-lake processes. Within the instrumental period, subtle variations in the chironomid assemblages that occurred before 1988 ± 2 yr were significantly correlated with summer temperatures even in times of traditional extensive sheep farming in the catchment. The relevance of the chironomid-derived climate signal over the last 1500 yr was supported by its good concordance with previous studies in west Greenland and in the Arctic. The chironomid assemblage therefore appeared to be a valuable proxy for climate changes within the Norse colony area. Synchronous changes in Norse diet and chironomid-reconstructed climate give new insights into the interplay of Norse society with climate.     

Shell Middens,Cultural Chronologies,and Coastal Settlement on the Rhode River Sub‐Estuary of Chesapeake Bay,Maryland, USA

North America's Atlantic Coast has been a focus of human settlement and subsistence for millennia, but sea‐level rise, sedimentation, and other processes pose significant challenges for archaeological research. Radiocarbon dating of 31 shell middens near the Rhode River Estuary, Maryland provides an opportunity to evaluate human land use, settlement, and cultural chronologies on the Chesapeake Bay. Sixty calibrated radiocarbon dates on eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) shell and charcoal demonstrate that Native Americans, colonial, and historic peoples harvested oysters and other shellfish from at least 3200 years ago through the 19th century. The number of dated sites increases during the Late Woodland period after about 1000 cal yr B.P., a factor probably related to greater site visibility and preservation, as well as increased human exploitation of the watershed. Accumulation rates for five of the shell middens provide preliminary indications that some of the sites accumulated rapidly suggesting, along with other evidence, that many of the region's shell middens were logistical or perhaps seasonal camps. Our study demonstrates the importance of regional watershed surveys and radiocarbon dating programs to help build and refine cultural chronologies in coastal regions threatened by sea‐level rise and other processes.     

Taphonomy or signal sensitivity in palaeoecological investigations of Norse landnám in Vatnahverfi,southern Greenland?

Anthrosols (cf. plaggen soils) are commonly found across the homefields of Norse farms, yet the extent to which these taphonomically complex and heterogeneous deposits provide reliable archives of environmental change and vegetation history has rarely been investigated. This paper compares the palynological signature contained within an anthrosol located beside Norse farm ruins in the Eastern Settlement of Greenland, with that from a mire situated ～400 m from the nearest archaeological remains. The investigation covers a period of ～1000 years leading into, through, and beyond the Greenlandic landnám of AD 985. The results demonstrate that, as anticipated, the anthrosol contains a strong signal for human impact associated with settlement and occupation, although changes in both pollen percentages and accumulation rates (influx) through the profile appear smooth, not erratic, and radiocarbon dates are conformable. Thus the palynological signature contained in the anthrosol is broadly comparable to the patterns characteristic of stratified natural contexts (e.g. mires) with small pollen source areas that are located in close proximity to former Norse structures. Nevertheless, it is also demonstrated that secondary microfossils are a major component of the pollen assemblages within the anthrosol, and pollen influx is notably an order of magnitude higher when compared against the peat core taken from the mire. It is suggested that this may result from the addition of pollen contained in animal dung, augmenting that accumulating through the natural accretion of pollen derived from the surrounding vegetation and landing on the surface of the anthrosol. Although this complicates any palynological interpretation, by adopting a cautious approach we argue that anthrosols can be used to extract useful information about vegetation history at a local scale, as well as providing indirect evidence of landscape impacts and resource use around farmsteads.