Biomarker responses in Macoma nasuta (Bivalvia) exposed to sediments from northern San Francisco Bay

Our study investigates biomarker responses and survival of Macoma nasuta exposed to sediments collected from six locations in northern San Francisco Bay. Biomarkers analyzed were stress proteins (hsp70) in gill, mantle and digestive gland, lysosomal membrane damage and histopathologic lesions. Sediments and clam tissues were analyzed for a comprehensive suite of heavy metals and trace organic pollutants. Sediment grain size and organic carbon content were determined. Clams accumulated metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticides (aldrin and p,p^′-DDT and its metabolites p,p^′-DDD and p,p^′-DDE). Pearson and Spearman correlation analysis revealed that mortality, hsp70 in gill and histopathologic lesion scores in gonads, and lysosomal membrane damage were significantly correlated with tissue concentrations of DDT and/or its metabolites. Tissue concentrations of metals, in particular nickel, chromium, and copper, were associated with macrophage aggregates in digestive gland and germ cell necrosis. Cadmium was linked to mortality and lysosomal membrane damage.     

Relationships between sediment contamination and toxicity in San Francisco Bay

Sediment contamination and toxicity were monitored at 14 sites in San Francisco Bay between 1991 and 1996. Sediment contamination patterns were different in the major reaches of the Bay, and at each site. Several contaminants were consistently above concentrations previously associated with toxicity at most sites. Bulk sediment bioassays using the amphipod Eohaustorius estuarius and sediment elutriate bioassays using larval bivalves (Mytilus spp., Crassostrea gigas) also indicated different patterns of sediment toxicity in space and time. Sediments were most toxic to the amphipods at Redwood Creek (90% of the tests), and were toxic in at least half the tests conducted at five other sites. Sediment elutriates severely reduced normal bivalve larval development at the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers in all samples, but toxicity occurred in less than a third of the tests in the Central and South Bays. Toxicity could not be statistically related to seasonal freshwater flow or rainfall in the Bay, but seasonal variation in contaminant concentrations and toxicity was observed. Amphipod toxicity was inversely and significantly related to the mean effects range-median quotient, suggesting that cumulative concentrations of several contaminants were related to toxicity. Further analysis identified suites of specific contaminants at each site that were variably related to amphipod toxicity at each site. Chlordanes, cadmium, and silver were significantly related to amphipod survival in the North Bay. Seasonal patterns in low, and high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were related to toxicity at Alameda, and metals and PAHs were related to toxicity at Castro Cove. Larval bivalve toxicity was associated with metals in bulk sediments, but elutriate chemistry was not measured, and relationships with toxicity could not be examined. Hypotheses about effective concentrations of several individual contaminants and mixtures of contaminants were posed.     

夏季珠江口水体中多环芳烃的分布、组成及来源

利用1999年7月对珠江口海域的调查资料,对该区表层海水中优控多环芳烃的分布、组成及来源进行了分析和讨论,结果表明:(1)夏季珠江口海域表层海水中14种溶解态多环芳烃[苊、芴、菲、蒽、荧蒽、芘、苯并(a)蒽、艹屈、苯并(b)荧蒽、苯并(k)荧蒽、苯并(a)芘、二苯并(a,h)蒽、苯并(g,h,i)艹北、茚并(1,2,3-cd)艹比]的质量浓度为63.8~171.7 ng/L,且沿着冲淡水流向呈降低趋势;(2)颗粒态中15种多环芳烃[萘、苊、芴、菲、蒽、荧蒽、芘、苯并(a)蒽、艹屈、苯并(b)荧蒽、苯并(k)荧蒽、苯并(a)芘、二苯并(a,h)蒽、苯并(g,h,i)艹北、茚并(1,2,3-cd)艹比]的质量浓度为60.7~186.7 ng/L,其分布与水体载沙量及悬浮颗粒物的性质、粒径有关,具有从河口内向外海降低的分布特征;(3)多环芳烃组成和特征参数比值的分析表明,珠江口海域高温裂解来源的多环芳烃在伶仃洋海区输入最多,且主要为人类活动中煤燃烧排放的,而在香港岛周围海区的输入则相对较少,且主要为油燃烧排放的;(4)与法国塞纳河及长江口等河口相比,珠江三角洲海域水体中存在高菲含量排放源。     

Correlation of CYP1A1 induction, as measured by the P450 RGS biomarker assay, with high molecular weight PAHs in mussels deployed at various sites in San Diego Bay in 1993 and 1995

In 1993 collections of marine mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were deployed 1 m from the water surface at six sites in San Diego Bay for 88 days. A similar mussel deployment was conducted in 1995, except the animals were deployed 1 m off the bottom and only for 32 days. After recovery from the sites, tissue was extracted with dichloromethane and the solvent extracts analyzed for chemical contaminant content and the ability to produce CYP1A1 induction in a transgenic cell line (TV101L cells). The cells used in the assay (P450 RGS) are stably transfected with a plasmid containing firefly luciferase linked to human CYP1A1 promoter sequences. Induction (fold increase compared to control) was determined by luminometry 16 h after application of small volumes (2–10 μl) of solvent extracts to cultured cells. Small mussels deployed in the Naval Station (NAV) in 1993 exhibited very high bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; 52 μg/g) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in addition to very strong induction of CYP1A1 measured by reporter gene system (RGS) responses. Large mussels deployed at the NAV station in 1993 and intermediate-sized animals placed at three stations within the NAV station in 1995 accumulated 13–29 μg PAH/g and exhibited relatively high RGS responses. Correlation of RGS responses for all mussel samples to the measured PAH concentrations was 0.85 (r²). When the concentrations of seven specific PAHs found in the samples are converted to benzo[a]pyrene equivalents, from previously derived toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for this test system, and compared to measured RGS responses, the correlations are approximately 0.9. The results of these studies indicate that the RGS biomarker can be used as a screening tool for detection of CYP1A1-inducing compounds in tissues, and an estimate of potential human health or ecological risk from ingestion of contaminated organisms. Positive RGS responses can be followed by detailed chemical analyses of PAHs and coplanar PCBs using the same extract.     

Enhancement of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in estuarine invertebrates by surface runoff at a decommissioned military fuel depot

Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was determined in blue mussels (Mytilus spp.) and shore crabs (Hemigrapsus sp.) at a recently closed military fuel depot in central San Francisco Bay, California. In April 1996, during a period of above average precipitation, specimens were collected at the depot, near the depot, and at sites 10 and 20 km south of the depot. Four weeks after the rains ended, blue mussels were again collected at the depot, and at two additional sites in the central Bay region. In April, total PAHs in mussels from the depot were significantly higher only than that in mussels collected 20 km from the depot; however, seven specific, substituted PAHs were higher at the depot than at all other sites. In June, only two of the 38 PAHs common in mussels in April were detected at the depot; these concentrations were comparable to ambient concentrations in mussels at the Bay. It seemed that bioavailability of PAHs at the depot was enhanced by rainfall, probably due to the mobilization of PAHs via groundwater into the Bay. Concentrations in mussels from chronically contaminated sites were about five times higher than mussels collected from the depot. Low PAH concentrations were detected in shore crabs near the depot, and the highest levels were not associated with the depot. Observed PAH concentrations are discussed in relation to upper trophic organisms.     

A laboratory and field comparison of sediment polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon bioaccumulation by the cosmopolitan estuarine polychaete Streblospio benedicti (Webster)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) bioaccumulation by the polychaete worm Streblospio benedicti (Webster) was measured under exposure to PAH-contaminated sediments in the field and for 28 d in the laboratory. Streblospio benedicti collected from field sediments contaminated at 2.94, 1.07, and l.52 μg g⁻¹ fluoranthene (FLU), benz[a]anthracene (BAA), and benzo[a]pyrene (BAP), bioaccumulated those PAHs at 1.53, 0.215, and 0.332 μg g⁻¹, while worms isolated from less contaminated field sediments (0.399, 0.228, 0.288 μg g⁻¹ FLU, BAA, and BAP) had FLU, BAA, and BAP body burdens of 0.543, 0.236, and 0.083 μg g⁻¹. Worms incubated for 28 d in PAH-spiked sediments (1.52, 0.991, 0.504 μg g⁻¹ FLU, BAA, and BAP) bioaccumulated those PAHs at 0.382, 0.966, and 0.602 μg g⁻¹, respectively. Data normalization to organism lipid and sediment organic carbon (biota-sediment accumulation factors [BSAFs] strongly suggest that Streblospio PAH bioaccumulation was directly related to percent sediment organic carbon, but BSAFs were substantially lower than predicted by equilibrium partitioning theory. BSAFs decreased with increasing PAH log K_ow, in worms collected from field sediments, but in spiked sediments BSAFs increased with increasing PAH hydrophobicity. This disparity may have been caused by insufficient spiked-sediment equilibration time (1.5h) in the case of the laboratory test sediments.     

Biomarker responses in Macoma nasuta (Bivalvia) exposed to sediments from northern San Francisco Bay

Our study investigates biomarker responses and survival of Macoma nasuta exposed to sediments collected from six locations in northern San Francisco Bay. Biomarkers analyzed were stress proteins (hsp70) in gill, mantle and digestive gland, lysosomal membrane damage and histopathologic lesions. Sediments and clam tissues were analyzed for a comprehensive suite of heavy metals and trace organic pollutants. Sediment grain size and organic carbon content were determined. Clams accumulated metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticides (aldrin and p,p(')-DDT and its metabolites p,p(')-DDD and p,p(')-DDE). Pearson and Spearman correlation analysis revealed that mortality, hsp70 in gill and histopathologic lesion scores in gonads, and lysosomal membrane damage were significantly correlated with tissue concentrations of DDT and/or its metabolites. Tissue concentrations of metals, in particular nickel, chromium, and copper, were associated with macrophage aggregates in digestive gland and germ cell necrosis. Cadmium was linked to mortality and lysosomal membrane damage.     

Effect of native and invasive cordgrass on Macoma petalum density, growth, and isotopic signatures

Ecosystem engineers can influence community and ecosystem dynamics by controlling resources, modifying the flow of energy or biomass, or changing physical characteristics of the habitat. Invasive hybrid cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora × Spartina foliosa) is an ecosystem engineer in salt marshes in San Francisco Bay, California, U.S.A. that raises intertidal elevations and may be either increasing C₄ plant carbon input into food webs or tying up carbon in a form that is not usable by consumers. A manipulative experiment compared abundance, growth, and stable isotope (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) composition of the clam Macoma petalum (=M. balthica) among native marsh, hybrid Spartina, and mudflats in central San Francisco Bay. We found higher densities (individuals m⁻²) of M. petalum on mudflats compared to either native or hybrid Spartina (p < 0.001). Macoma petalum shell growth was significantly greater in mudflats than in either vegetation type in 2002 (p = 0.005) but not 2003. Differences in shell growth between native and hybrid Spartina were not significant. Stable isotope results showed differences between habitats in δ¹³C but not δ¹⁵N. Carbon signatures of M. petalum placed in Spartina were much more depleted than the isotopic signature of Spartina. Neither native nor hybrid Spartina appears to be a significant carbon source for M. petalum in San Francisco Bay, and we found no evidence that hybrid Spartina contributes carbon to M. petalum beyond what is provided by S. foliosa, despite the hybrid's much greater biomass. Our results show that loss of mudflat habitat, rather than increased input of C₄ carbon, is the greatest effect of the invasion of hybrid Spartina on M. petalum.     

Spatial profiles of hsp70 proteins in Asian clam (Potamocorbula amurensis) in northern San Francisco Bay may be linked to natural rather than anthropogenic stressors.

Multi-year investigations in northern San Francisco Bay by United States Geological Survey have linked reduced condition indices in populations of Asian clam (Potamocorbula amurensis) with elevated cadmium tissue concentrations. Our study seeks to determine whether levels of hsp70 proteins in P. amurensis can be correlated with these findings, and/or are related to histopathologic alterations and concentrations of metallothionein-like proteins. Here we present our results on stress proteins in clams collected monthly from four field stations between July 1996 and January 1998. In addition, animals were exposed in the laboratory to a range of salinities. Stress proteins were analyzed by Western blotting using monoclonal antibodies. Hsp70 protein levels in field-collected clams were significantly higher at the seaward (high salinity/low cadmium) stations (12.5, 8.1) than at the landward (low salinity/high cadmium) stations (6.1, 4.1). Laboratory studies showed that clams exposed to 0.1 ppt salinity had markedly lower hsp70 levels than clams exposed to higher salinities. In view of our previous laboratory studies showing that cadmium induces hsp70 in P. amurensis, our present results indicate that reduced hsp70 protein levels in field-collected clams may be linked to salinity effects rather than cadmium tissue concentrations.     

Anthropogenic influences on shoreline and nearshore evolution in the San Francisco Bay coastal system

Analysis of four historical bathymetric surveys over a 132-year period has revealed significant changes to the morphology of the San Francisco Bar, an ebb-tidal delta at the mouth of San Francisco Bay estuary. From 1873 to 2005 the San Francisco Bar vertically-eroded an average of 80 cm over a 125 km² area, which equates to a total volume loss of 100 ± 52 million m³ of fine- to coarse-grained sand. Comparison of the surveys indicates the entire ebb-tidal delta contracted radially, with the crest moving landward an average of 1 km. Long-term erosion of the ebb-tidal delta is hypothesized to be due to a reduction in the tidal prism of San Francisco Bay and a decrease in coastal sediment supply, both as a result of anthropogenic activities. Prior research indicates that the tidal prism of the estuary was reduced by 9% from filling, diking, and sedimentation. Compilation of historical records dating back to 1900 reveals that a minimum of 200 million m³ of sediment has been permanently removed from the San Francisco Bay coastal system through dredging, aggregate mining, and borrow pit mining. Of this total, ∼54 million m³ of sand-sized or coarser sediment was removed from central San Francisco Bay. With grain sizes comparable to the ebb-tidal delta, and its direct connection to the bay mouth, removal of sediments from central San Francisco Bay may limit the sand supply to the delta and open coast beaches.     

Induction of heat shock protein (hsp)60 in Isochrysis galbana exposed to sublethal preparations of dispersant and Prudhoe Bay crude oil

Adaptation to sublethal exposure to crude oil by phytoplankton is poorly understood. Use of chemical dispersants for oil spill remediation increases petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in water, while exposing marine organisms to potentially toxic concentrations of dispersant. Heat shock proteins (hsps) have been found to serve as an adaptive and protective mechanism against environmental stresses. The objective of this project was to examine the induction of hsps in Isochrysis galbana, a golden-brown algae, following exposure to the water-accommodated fraction (WAF) of Prudhoe Bay crude oil (PBCO) and PBCO chemically dispersed with Corexit 9527® (dispersed oil: DO). Initial experiments using ³⁵S-labeled amino acids and 2-dimensional electrophoresis with subsequent western blotting identified and confirmed hsp60, a member of the chaperonin family of stress proteins, as being efficiently induced by heat shock in this species. One-dimensional SDS PAGE and western blotting, with hsp60 antibodies and chemiluminesence detection, were used to quantitate hsp60 following exposure to a range of environmental temperatures and concentrations of WAF and DO preparations. I. galbana cultured in 22 parts per thousand (‰) salinity showed a statistically significant increase (p<0.05) in hsp60 after exposure to 25, 30, and 35°C for 1 h compared to controls (20°C), while 34‰ cultures showed no significant increase in hsp60 with increasing temperature. Cultures (22 and 34‰) exposed to varying doses of WAF and DO exhibited statistically significant (p<0.05) increases in levels of hsp60 in all cases. A dose-related response was observed in all exposures (r²≥0.90) with the exception of 34‰ WAF. In independent exposures, a dose-related hsp60 response to naphthalene, a relatively abundant water-soluble aromatic hydrocarbon, was observed in both 22 and 34‰ cultures. Results of this study are consistent with previous studies in other species documenting increases in hsp60 levels with exposure to xenobiotics. Further studies are investigating the protective function of hsp60 against the toxic effects of exposure to WAF and DO preparations.     

PAH-biodegradation potential of indigenous microorganisms: evidence from the respiratory activity of surface sediments in the Quanzhou Bay in China

Seven stations were established in the Quanzhou Bay (24.73°-24.96°N, 118.50°-118.70°E) in China on three cruises to determine the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the numbers of PAH-degrading bacteria in surface sediments. Assessing the biodegradation poten- tial of indigenous microorganisms by measuring the respiratory intensity with the addition of PAHs in sediment samples was also one of the aims of this study. The results show that the total PAH concentrations of the sedimen...     

沉积物中多环芳烃在海岸带水域自然环境中的衰减研究

本文在现场情况下，研究了自然条件下受污染海岸带沉积物中的7种多环芳烃（Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons，简称PAHs）的解吸动力学行为。结果表明，7种PAHs）的解吸动力学行为。结果表明，7种PAHs的解吸动力学行为可以用二元模型模拟。文中并将所得数据与文献报道的数据进行了比较。     

Acute toxicity of heavy metals, tributyltin, ammonia and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to benthic amphipodgrandidierella japonica

Benthic amphipod,Grandidierella japonica widely inhabits the Korean coastal waters and is developed as a standard test species for sediment toxicity tests. We exposedG . japonica to various pollutants including 4 kinds of inorganic metals (Ag, Cd, Cu and Hg), tributyltin [TBT], ammonia and 7 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds (acenaphthene, chrysene, fluoranthene, fluorene, naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene) to estimate the no observed effect concentration (NOEC) and the median lethal concentration (LC50) of each pollutant during the 96-hour acute exposure. Among all tested pollutants, TBT was most toxic toG. japonica, and Hg was most toxic among inorganic metals. The toxicity of pyrene toG. japonica was greatest among PAH compounds, followed by fluoranthene, phenanathrene, acenaphthene, fluorene and naphthalene. The toxicity of PAH compounds was closely related to their physico-chemical characteristics such as K_ow and water solubility.G. japonica responded adequately to pollutant concentrations and exposure durations, and the sensitivity ofG. japonica to various inorganic and organic pollutants was generally comparable to other amphipods used as standard test species in ecotoxicological studies, indicating this species can be applied in the assessment of environments polluted by various harmful substances.     

The influence of salinity on the heat-shock protein response of Potamocorbula amurensis (Bivalvia)

For biomarkers to be useful in assessing anthropogenic impacts in field studies involving aquatic organisms, they should not be affected by naturally occurring changes in environmental parameters such as salinity. This is especially important in estuarine environments and for relatively unspecific biomarkers like heat-shock proteins (hsps, stress proteins). In this study, the heat-shock protein response was measured in the euryhaline clam, Potamocorbula amurensis, after exposure to a range of salinities reflecting normal and extreme environmental conditions in Northern San Francisco Bay, California. The ability to raise cellular hsp70 levels in response to heat-shock was significantly impaired in P. amurensis collected from a low (0.5 ppt) salinity field site, and after 14 day exposure to low salinity in the laboratory.     

A survey of indicators for reproductive endocrine disruption in Fundulus heteroclitus (killifish) at selected sites in the Chesapeake Bay

Plasma vitellogenin and related parameters in the killifish Fundulus heteroclitus were measured at selected sites in the Chesapeake Bay. In males, vitellogenin was above the detection limit 14% of the time, and detections did not differ between sites or seasons. Few differences in plasma vitellogenin levels were found between sites during fall in either male or female F. heteroclitus, the time of natural gonadal regression for this species. There was some variation in the ratio of male to female F. heteroclitus, but was not consistent at most sites. Significant negative correlations were found between reported sediment polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and GSI, and PAHs and plasma vitellogenin in females in both Spring 1999 and Spring 2000. Gonadal anomalies in F. heteroclitus included slight reductions in certain tissue types. Overall, reproductive endocrine disruption in the killifish F. heteroclitus at the sites sampled in the Chesapeake Bay appeared somewhat minimal.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface seawater and in indigenous mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from coastal areas of the Saronikos Gulf (Greece)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were identified and measured in surface seawater and in the tissues (gills and mantle) of indigenous black mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis, collected from three coastal sites of Saronikos Gulf (Greece), a gulf that exhibits high levels of pollution. The total PAHs measured by spectrofluorometry in the surface seawater were found in the range of 425–459 ng L⁻¹ at the most polluted sites 1 and 2 (Elefsis Bay–Salamis Island) and in the range of 103–124 ng L⁻¹ at site 3 (Aegina Island). PAHs' sources in seawater were identified by application of specific PAH ratios, such as phenanthrene/anthracene and fluoranthene/pyrene. Levels of PAHs in soft tissues (gills and mantle) of indigenous mussels were much higher than those reported for seawater. Total PAH concentrations in mantle tissues were in the range of 1300–1800 ng g⁻¹ dry weight (dw) tissue at sites 1 and 2 and approximately 380 ng g⁻¹ dw at site 3. In gill tissues total PAH concentrations were in the range of 1480–2400 ng g⁻¹ dw at sites 1 and 2 and approximately 430 ng g⁻¹ dw at site 3. PAHs composition was dominated by two-, three- and four-ring compounds in seawater, where 17 different PAH compounds were identified and measured in mussel tissues. Mussels can be used as sentinel organisms to monitoring PAHs' contamination, since they concentrate PAHs from the surrounding water media and therefore making the chemical analysis simpler and less prone to error than that for water. In surface seawater possible weathering and photodegradation due to hot climates contribute to reduced PAHs concentrations.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of the Zhelin Bay in the South China Sea

This study examined the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments collected in July 2004 from eight stations in the Zhelin Bay, one of the most important bays for large-scale mariculture in Guangdong Province. Thirteen individual parent PAH compounds were identified using high performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. The overall average concentration of total PAHs was 477.0 ng/g, ranging from 146.1 to 928.8 ng/g. Low molecular mass PAHs with two to three rings (e.g., acenaphthene) were dominant in each sample. The PAH concentration varied among sampling stations, with the highest concentration observed at bay outlets and the lowest found at stations outside the bay. Ratios of low to high molecular mass PAHs and fluoranthene to pyrene were used to determine the origin of PAHs, and results indicated mainly petroleum-derived contamination. Compared with other bays and harbors around the world, the total concentrations of PAHs in surface sediments at the Zhelin Bay are moderate, but this does not exclude the possibility of potential impact on human consumers because some strong carcinogenic PAHs with high molecular mass were found at the station with a nearby caged-fish and oyster farm. Long-term monitoring of PAH contamination in the Zhelin Bay is recommended to reduce the potential toxicological effects on aquatic organisms and humans.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in recent sediments from a subtropical estuary in Brazil

The scope of this work was to evaluate the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their possible sources in two shallow sediment cores from an estuarine area located in the south region of Brazil, the Guaratuba Bay. The estuary is encompassed by an Environmental Protection Area (EPA) of 1306 km², which is still considered to be pristine, despite recent urban growth. To assess levels of 14 selected PAHs in the sediments, among those listed as “priority pollutants” by the US Environmental Protection Agency, the cores were divided in several sections, followed by extraction, clean-up, fractionation and subsequent analysis using HPLC coupled to a fluorescence detector. Among the PAHs detected, phenanthrene and fluoranthene showed the highest concentrations. PAHs with more than four rings were usually present in low concentrations or were undetectable. To assist in the identification of possible sources, the ratios An/(An + Phe) and Flt/(Flt + Py) (anthracene to anthracene plus phenanthrene and fluoranthene to fluoranthene plus pyrene) and a PCA model were also used. Total concentrations of PAHs ranged between 1.5 and 3130 ng/g (mean 495) dry weight for the core collected in the inner part of the estuary, and between 78.5 and 3270 ng/g (mean 899) dry weight for the other core, collected in the outer part. Compared to values found in other studies in coastal zones along South American eastern margin, this area can be considered to range from low polluted to moderately polluted. From the data, it was also possible to conclude that there is predominance of petroleum sources, and essentially close to the more urbanised areas. Combustion sources have only minor contribution and are episodic, when compared to the latter.