Towards sustainable fisheries subsidies: Entering a new round of reform under the Common Fisheries Policy

On 22 April 2009 the European Commission published its ‘Green Paper on the Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy’. The Green Paper points out a contradiction in policy, noting on one hand that public financial support to the Community's fisheries sector is substantial, but on the other hand such support is often incompatible with other Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) objectives, particularly the need to reduce overcapacities. Providing an analytical framework to better understand the effects of subsidies as well as an overview of existing funding schemes under the CFP, this article aims at answering some of the questions posed by the European Commission within its Green Paper. Answers are based on two ideas: the exploitation of marine capture resources ultimately depends on the level of available fish stocks and that a large share of subsidies fuels the race to fish by inducing investment incentives for the fisheries sector. Policies that have ignored this tend to encourage inefficient and unsustainable fishing as well as the misallocation of public funds. Although support schemes under the CFP have changed in recent years, some problematic support schemes persist. A future reform will have to continue the course taken towards sustainable and efficient approaches to supporting the fisheries industry.     

CITES-listings,EU eel trade bans and the increase of export of tropical eels out of Indonesia

Following the decision in 2007 by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) to include European eel Anguilla anguilla on its Appendix II, and the 2010 ban of all eel exports by EU member states, a shift has occurred to tropical Asian eel species to meet the demand from East Asia. Here the focus is on the role Indonesia played in fulfilling this demand using official export figures, reports in the Indonesian media and government documents. Despite Indonesia first putting in place restrictions on the export of eel in 1974 the export has increased exponentially over the last 25 years. Prior to the EU ban it exported ~1.4 million kg/year. With the infrastructure in place, and close trade links to East Asia, and helped by government encouragement, Indonesia was in an excellent position to step in where the EU posed restrictions. Exports increased to 3.2 million kg/year (2007–2009), to 4.0 million kg/year (2010–2012), and to 6.1 million kg (2013). The interest in eel trade in Indonesia increased in parallel with the exports. From 2010 onwards the searches for the Indonesian equivalent of eel (“ikan sidat”) became frequent enough for it to be picked up by Google Trends. Indonesia is home to five species of eel, and while it is unclear in what quantities each is traded, Indonesian media reports suggest that the majority comprises A. bicolar and A. marmorata. More stringent management schemes, possibly including CITES-listing, and better monitoring are needed to ensure that international trade is not an impediment to the conservation of tropical eels.     

Fisheries annual fixed cost data collection and estimation methodology: An application in the Northeast,U.S.

Information on the cost of fishing is integral in measuring fisheries performance and correctly evaluating the economic impacts of fisheries regulations and management rules. However, limited availability of cost data often renders such analyses either incomplete or implausible. This study discusses a survey effort that was undertaken in the Northeast US to collect fisheries annual fixed cost data directly from commercial fishermen. Stratified random samples of fishing vessel owners were surveyed in 2012 and 2013. An overview of the survey procedures, sample selection and administration is given here. The data cleaning process, non-response bias and data summaries are also presented. A modeling framework is discussed for estimating fisheries cost data. Robust cost models in combination with regular data collection efforts will allow for more complete economic and financial analyses relevant to fisheries management and conservation.     

Distribution of the burden of fisheries regulations in Europe: The north/south divide

The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is a priority area of the European Union's Better Regulation agenda. Understanding the spatial variation in the application of the policy and the reasons behind these differences would provide insights into policy making in different socioeconomic and cultural settings that will assist in better regulation. The CFP aqcuis (the body of European Union law accumulated thus far) was analysed by creating a database composed of pre-defined elements from each obligation. Distinct differences are apparent in the ‘burden’ imposed by regulations in the Northern and Southern waters. However, a combination of a timeline of fish landings and the accumulation of the CFP regulations shows that despite the increase in the number of regulations this has not led to the anticipated reduction in landings. Historical, biological and geopolitical differences between the two major marine regions of the EU are discussed in terms of the impact they have had on the formation of the different fisheries management models in the different regions. Finally, the elements forming these models are discussed in terms of successes and failures in the context of the 2012 CFP reform.     

Institutions and governance in the European Common Fisheries Policy: An empirical study of Spanish fishers' attitudes toward greater participation

Public participation in the decision-making process is a key element of good governance. In its latest proposals for reforming the Common Fisheries Policy, the European Commission acknowledges that management measures lack legitimacy without input from the fishers themselves and thus underscores the need to increase it and adapt it to local or regional conditions. This study analyzes Spanish fishermen's own views about their participation in the decision-making process. The results show that most fishers are in favor of more participation by themselves and by regional governments in the decision-making process.     

Issues at the fore in the land of Magnuson and Stevens: A summary of the 14th Bevan Series on Sustainable Fisheries

The Magnuson–Stevens Act is the United States׳ premier law governing fisheries conservation and management. Congress has revisited the Act multiple times since its inception in 1976—most recently in 1996 with the Sustainable Fisheries Act and in 2006 with the Magnuson Stevens Act—and is currently in the process of reauthorizing the Act. The University of Washington focused the 14th annual Bevan Series on Sustainable Fisheries on issues surrounding reauthorization. The symposium featured a diversity of stakeholders, including fisheries scientists, managers, policy analysts, students, non-governmental organizations, Tribes, and industry. The symposium explored the Act׳s history, means of ending overfishing and ensuring accountability, lessons from U.S. West Coast and North Pacific fisheries, and challenges and solutions to ecosystem-based fisheries management.     

Fisheries learning exchanges and sea turtle conservation: An effort between Mexico,Cuba and the U.S. to engage Cuban coastal communities in non-consumptive alternative behaviors

The purpose of this short communication is to describe the Third International Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Fisheries Exchange that took place from April 22–30, 2009 on Cuba’s Isla de la Juventud [Isle of Youth]. A group of 28 fishers, conservationists, marine scientists and fisheries managers from Cuba, Mexico and the U.S. gathered at Siguanea Bay off the island’s southwest coast. The goals of the exchange were to 1) provide a forum for sea turtle experts and fishing communities in Cuba, Mexico, and the U.S. to share experiences on conservation activities, 2) develop the scientific basis for future conservation in this highly biologically important region of Cuba, and 3) increase support by Cuban fishers for local sea turtle conservation efforts. During the exchange, participants met with local Cuban fishers about the challenges of conserving sea turtle populations while maintaining their fishing livelihoods, shared solutions developed by fishers to accomplish the same in Mexico, and undertook field and cultural activities. Key outcomes for the exchange include an improved understanding of sea turtle bycatch off the Isla de la Juventud, enhanced collaboration among the three nations in turtle conservation, and increased motivation by fishers to participate in sea turtle research and conservation. Additionally, as a direct result of this exchange, the community of Cocodrilo on the Isla de la Juventud has hosted annual sea turtle festivals that increase support for turtle conservation efforts by the local community.     

Estimating present and future profits within the Namibian hake industry: a bio-economic analysis

Namibia's fishing industry is managed using a system of fishing rights and individual fishing quotas. This property rights system was intended to encourage the local fishing industry to exploit the resource responsibly. Unfortunately, unintended perverse incentives have promoted induced overcapacity and inefficient use of vessels. In combination with inconsistent quota allocations, the result has been persistent pressure on the already depleted biological resource. This paper uses a bio-economic model to estimate actual and potential profits in Namibia's hake fishery. N$300 million annual profit was not realised due to the depressed state of the resource. Mean annual profits for the years 2007–2009 were N$80 million, which provides the fishing industry, as a whole, only about 36% of the potential normal profit. Theoretically this implies that the fishing industry would probably receive better returns with less risk if they invested their money elsewhere. This study demonstrates that by rationalising quotas and improving management, better efficiency and higher profits for the fishers and government could be obtained.     

Fisheries in the context of marine spatial planning: Defining principal areas for fisheries in the German EEZ

A method is presented to define principal areas for fisheries at high spatial resolution applicable to be implemented into marine spatial planning procedures. Vessel monitoring system (VMS) data from 2005 to 2006 are acquired to determine vessel-based fishing effort. Principal areas for the German exclusive economic zone (EEZ) are defined as areas in which 75% of the effort of either year is carried out. Examples are given for the 5 most abundant fisheries in the German EEZ in terms of vessel-based effort, i.e. gill netting, pelagic trawling, demersal otter board trawling and beam trawling >300 and <300 HP. A historical comparison for demersal otter board trawling shows relative stability of spatial utilization patterns in the North Sea section of the EEZ.     

北冰洋公海渔业权益争端的博弈分析——基于环北极国家视角

北冰洋公海尚处于冰封状态,但气候变暖、海冰加速融化使未来公海出现新渔场成为可能,其战略价值因而得到国际关注。当前,环北极国家已率先展开渔业权益争夺。为分析北冰洋公海渔业事务的国际走势,文章基于博弈论思想,构建非对称懦夫博弈模型及古诺模型来模拟和探究环北极国家在渔业利益争夺中的合作或冲突行为,研究得出:现阶段北冰洋公海渔业权益争端主要表现为渔业管理权的争夺,在该博弈中,非北冰洋沿岸国采取退让策略,沿岸国采取进攻策略,可以达到进化稳定均衡;一旦公海具备捕鱼条件,争端将演化为开发模式选择的博弈,此时,北冰洋沿岸国采取合作开发策略可以有效保护公海渔业资源,并实现国家的长期利益。     

Indonesian aquaculture futures: An analysis of fish supply and demand in Indonesia to 2030 and role of aquaculture using the AsiaFish model

This paper explores the seafood sector in Indonesia, using fish supply-demand modeling, with special focus on the growing role of aquaculture in the country's food portfolio. The paper describes six scenarios for future fish supply–demand dynamics and examines the role of aquaculture growth in fish supply in Indonesia. A business as usual scenario (BAU) assumed exogenous variables of our supply-demand model following historical trends. Five alternative scenarios explored the implications of stagnant capture fisheries; export-oriented growth of aquaculture; domestic-oriented aquaculture growth; slow growth of aquaculture sector; and disease outbreaks to key aquaculture species. The BAU scenario projected that fish supply and demand in Indonesia continues to increase over time and strong aquaculture growth is critical to meet increasing demand for fish. Stagnant capture fisheries resulted in increasing fish prices and decreasing fish consumption. Export-oriented aquaculture growth benefitted fish supply and exports, but also helped lower domestic prices and thus increase consumption. An emphasis on domestic aquaculture commodities increased fish supply, providing best domestic consumption outcomes and lower consumer prices. Slow aquaculture growth reduced fish supply and led to undesirable increases in domestic prices and decreasing domestic consumption as a consequence. Disease outbreaks in shrimp and carp aquaculture resulted in a short-term reduction in aquaculture output and increasing fish prices, lowering fish consumption.     

Fishing occupational health and safety: A comparison of regulatory regimes and safety outcomes in six countries

The actual or potential effects on fishing health and safety of the full scope of national and international regulatory regime components governing commercial fishing are often poorly understood. Especially lacking are comprehensive reviews of all the government policies that directly and indirectly affect fishing risk within countries with significant commercial fisheries. We present the results of a comprehensive, multi-national project that compares the regulatory regimes of six countries (Canada, US, UK, Iceland, New Zealand, and South Africa) and examines the impacts (either real or perceived) of legislation and regulations on fishing occupational health and safety outcomes. A conceptual model is proposed that identifies potential sources of direct and indirect risks to fishing health and safety in order to throw light on potential pathways from regulation to fishing safety. Our results highlight differences and gaps in the regulatory frameworks of the countries studied and point to the urgent need for improved assessment and for access to accurate and standardized statistics regarding fishing-related injuries and illnesses. We conclude with several recommendations for moving forward.     

Formation and evolution of the tertiary carbonate reefs in the Madura Strait Basin of Indonesia

Analysis of 2 D seismic data over 4 500 km in length from the Madura Strait Basin in the East Java Sea reveals seismic re?ection characteristics of reefs and associated sedimentary bodies, including asymmetrical or symmetrical dome re?ections, slope progradational re?ections, chaotic re?ections and discontinuous strong re?ections inside the reef, which onlap the ?ank of the reef. It is concluded that the developmental paleo-environment of most reefs is mainly conducive to shallow marine carbonate platform facies and platform margin facies, based on well core data, variations in seismic facies and strata thickness.The formation and evolution of all reefs are primarily in?uenced by the tectonic framework of the Madura Strait Basin. Platform margin reefs are principally controlled by two types of structures: one is a series of E-W trending Paleogene normal faults, and the other is an E-W trending Neogene inversion structures. In addition, wave actions, tidal currents and other ocean currents play an accelerated role in sorting, rounding and redeposition for the accumulation and evolution of reefs. Tertiary reefs in the MSB can be divided into four types: 1) an open platform coral reef of Late Oligocene to Early Miocene, 2) a platform margin coral reef controlled by normal faults in Late Oligocene to Early Miocene, 3) a platform margin Globigerina moundreef controlled by a "hidden" inversion structure in Early Pliocene, and 4) a platform margin Globigerina mound-reef controlled by thrust faults in the early Pliocene. Patterns of the formation and evolution of reefs are also suggested.     

Strengthening regional governance to protect the marine environment in Northeast Asia: From a fragmented to an integrated approach

Northeast Asia is failing in its attempts to protect its regional seas from irreversible ecological damage and contamination. At the policy level, the regional architecture for marine protection has several glaring structural problems that need to be identified and resolved in an expeditious and politically sensitive manner. Although the UNDP/GEF Yellow Sea Large Marine Ecosystem Project (YS LME) and the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP) are the two most likely institutions from which to build the next phase of regional marine cooperation, synergies between the two institutions remain limited. Both institutions are endowed with unique opportunities, challenges and limitations that must be taken into full consideration when planning the next step of coordinated action for regional marine protection. For the purpose of developing a more effective phase of marine cooperation in Northeast Asia, this paper advocates the formation of a Marine Environmental Community based on an integrated approach towards Northeast Asia's regional marine programs. This will facilitate improvements in funding, policy coordination through high level policy dialogue, transparency and efficiency of information sharing systems and full participation of all the coastal states in the region.     

Identification of important marine areas using ecologically or biologically significant areas (EBSAs) criteria in the East to Southeast Asia region and comparison with existing registered areas for the purpose of conservation

The biodiversity of East to Southeast (E–SE) Asian waters is rapidly declining because of anthropogenic effects ranging from local environmental pressures to global warming. To improve marine biodiversity, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets were adopted in 2010. The recommendation of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA), encourages application of the ecologically or biologically significant area (EBSA) process to identify areas for conservation. However, there are few examples of the use of EBSA criteria to evaluate entire oceans. In this article, seven criteria are numerically evaluated to identify important marine areas (EBSA candidates) in the E–SE Asia region. The discussion includes 1) the possibility of EBSA criteria quantification throughout the E–SE Asia oceans and the suitability of the indices selected; 2) optimal integration methods for criteria, and the relationships between the criteria and data robustness and completeness; and; 3) a comparison of the EBSA candidates identified and existing registered areas for the purpose of conservation, such as marine protected areas (MPAs). Most of the EBSA criteria could be quantitatively evaluated throughout the Asia-Pacific region. However, three criteria in particular showed a substantial lack of data. Our methodological comparison showed that complementarity analysis performed better than summation because it considered criteria that were evaluated only in limited areas. Most of the difference between present-day registered areas and our results for EBSAs resulted from a lack of data and differences in philosophy for the selection of indices.     

印度尼西亚峇淡岛海域鱾新本尼登虫（Neobenedenia girellae）形态学及28S rRNA分子鉴定

本研究通过结合形态学与DNA分子标记等生物学手段,对印度尼西亚峇淡岛海域海水鱼类养殖中的本尼登虫(Isolate Batam, IB)进行形态学分析和种类鉴定。IB虫株在形态上与鱾新本尼登虫(Neobenedenia girellae)相似,属于新本尼登属。28S rRNA序列扩增得到序列为394 bp,与其他本尼登虫属比对相似性在85.86%～99.47%之间。进化树构建结果显示IB虫株与其他珻氏新本尼登虫(Neobenedenia melleni)和鱾新本尼登虫构成一簇,而本尼登虫自成一簇。综上所述,本研究结果支持鱾新本尼登虫与珻氏新本尼登虫为同种异名的分类学观点,并将IB虫株定种为鱾新本尼登虫。     

东亚海区的海岸带综合管理经验:从地方性示范到区域性合作

本文阐述了东亚海区海岸带综合管理实践如何从地方性的示范发展到区域性的合作管理框架，如何实现海洋和海岸带资源的可持续利用．文中着重突出了厦门市政府在维持环境保护和经济发展的平衡，启动和实施海岸带综合管理，以及与沿海国在国际合作方面的经验，总结了厦门实施海岸带综合管理的主要经验，包括多部门间综合协调机制、海岸带综合管理法律框架、科技支撑体系的建立，海洋功能区划、环境剖面和战略环境管理计划的制定，以及实现海上联合执法等等．同时阐述了东亚海域环境管理区域合作计划（PEMSEA）与澳大利亚合作伙伴之间的关系在推动沿海城市的国际合作中将起到的作用．     

Marine and coastal policy in the UK: Challenges and opportunities in a new era

Marine and coastal policy in the UK has faced a number of significant changes in recent years, most notably the passing of the Marine and Coastal Access Act in 2009. These changes have brought significant challenges and opportunities for all those involved in the management and use of the UK's marine and coastal environment. This new era of marine policy inspired the UK's first Marine and Coastal Policy forum held in June 2011. In this introductory paper the global context of marine policy changes and the themes which emerged from the forum, forming the basis of the articles in this special issue, are outlined. It is concluded that there is a high level of engagement, capacity and willingness of key stakeholders to work collaboratively to address the environmental, social and economic complexities of managing the marine and coastal environment. It is both evident and encouraging that progress is being made and the many challenges faced in this new era give rise to a number of opportunities to develop new ideas and effective mechanisms for finding solutions.     

Trust relationships between fishers and government: New challenges for the co-management arrangements in the Dutch flatfish industry

Until the 1990s fisheries were largely managed by the state. Since then, Dutch government and the sector increasingly recognized that a fishing industry cannot be managed effectively without the cooperation and participation of fishers to formulate policy and to implement and enforce laws and regulations. As a result, in the nineties, the existing neo-corporatist arrangement was replaced by a co-management system in the Dutch flatfish fishery. Co-management is often seen as leading to greater procedural legitimacy and subsequently compliance. However, constructing an effective co-management arrangement is not only a matter of building institutions but also a matter of building trust relations between the government and industry. Institutional arrangements such as co-management can contribute to these trust building processes; however, a too strong reliance on institutional arrangements can lead to distrust when new challenges are being faced and institutional arrangements fail to adapt to these changes.     

An analysis of sponge diversity and distribution at three taxonomic levels in the Thousand Islands/Jakarta Bay reef complex, West-Java, Indonesia

Very few coral reefs are located close enough to large cities to study the influence of large urban populations on reef assemblages. An exception is the Thousand Islands reef complex to the north of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, and one of the largest conurbations in the world. Here we present data from a detailed survey where sponge assemblages were assessed at 30 patch reefs associated with islands in three coastal zones along an in-to-offshore gradient. Sponge assemblages are described at three taxonomic levels of detail (species, genus and family level). We recorded a total of 118 sponge species, 64 genera and 36 families, Aaptos suberitoides (Brønsted, 1934), Clathria (Thalysias) reinwardti (Vosmaer, 1880), Petrosia (Petrosia) nigricans (Lindgren, 1897) and Xestospongia testudinaria (Lamarck, 1813) were the most common species overall. There was a pronounced difference in composition among zones with the most distinct difference between the inshore zone and the other two zones. The inshore environment was characterised by very high turbidity and low live coral cover; the dominant substrate consisted of algal turf and sand. Environmental conditions improved and sponge diversity increased further offshore, although most areas appeared to have been affected by some form of disturbance. Ordinations were also largely congruent, at species, generic and family levels of taxonomic resolution. This indicates that variation in composition at higher taxonomic levels is a good indicator of variation at lower taxonomic levels, at least when there is a pronounced environmental gradient.