Chemical variations of magmas at Izu-Oshima volcano,Japan: plagioclase-controlled and differentiated magmas

Systematic analyses of the major-element chemistry of products of several eruptions during syn-and post-caldera stages of Izu-Oshima volcano were compiled. Comparisons of the products of large-scale eruptions in 1338?, 1421? and 1777–1778, of intermediate-scale eruptions in 1950–1951 and 1986, and of small-scale eruptions in 1954, 1964 and 1974 clearly show the existence of two types of magmas. One is “plagioclase-controlled” and the other is “differentiated” magma (multimineral-controlled); i.e. the bulk chemistry of the first magma type is controlled by plagioclase addition or removal, while that of the second type is controlled by fractionation of plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and titanomagnetite. Eruptions of Izu-Oshima volcano have occurred at the summit and along the flanks. Summit eruptions tap only plagioclase-controlled magmas, while flank eruptions supply both magma types. It is considered unlikely that both magma types would coexist in the same magma chamber based on the petrology. In the case of the 1986 eruption, the flank magma was isolated sometime in the past from the summit magma chamber or central conduit, and formed small magma pockets, where further differentiation occurred due to relatively rapid cooling. In a period of quiescence prior to the 1986 eruption, new magma was supplied to the summit magma chamber, and the summit eruption began. The dike intrusion or fracturing around the small magma pockets triggered the flank eruption of the differentiated magma. This model can be applied to the large-scale flank eruption in 1338(?) which erupted differentiated magmas. In 1421(?), the flank eruption tapped plagioclase-controlled magma. In this case, the isolated magmas from the summit magma chamber directly penetrated the flank without differentiation.     

Magma mixing and magma plumbing systems in island arcs

Petrographic features of mixed rocks in island arcs, especially those originating by the mixing of magmas with a large compositional and temperature difference, such as basalt and dacite, suggest that the whole mixing process from their first contact to the final cooling (= eruption) has occurred continuously and in a relatively short time period. This period is probably less than several months, considerably shorter than the whole volcanic history. There may also be a prolonged quiescent interval, lasting longer than several days, between the magmas' contact and the mechanical mixing. This interval will allow the basic magma to cool and produce a semi-solidified boundary which is later disrupted by flow movements to produce basic inclusions.Mixing of magmas of contrasting chemical composition need not be the inevitable consequence of the contact of the magmas. It is, however, made more probable by forced convection caused by motive force such as the injection of a basic magma into an acidic magma chamber. A short interval between their initial contact and the final eruption requires that the acid magma chamber has a small volume, of the same order or less than that the introduced basic magma.The volcanic activity of Myoko volcano, central Japan, of the last 100,000 years shows alternate eruptions of hybrid andesite by mixing of basaltic and dacitic magmas, and non-mixed basalt to basaltic andesite. There was a repose period of 20,000 to 30,000 years between eruptions. The acidic chamber, eventually producing the mixed andesite activity, is formed during the repose period by the « in situ » solidification of the original basic magma against its wall. The volume of the chamber is very small, probably about 10^–2 km³. Basaltic magma with constant chemical composition is supplied to the shallow chamber from another deep seated basaltic chamber. The volume of the shallow magma chamber may be critical to the characteristics of volcanic activity and its products.     

Effusive eruptions from a large silicic magma chamber: the Bearhead Rhyolite,Jemez volcanic field,NM

Large continental silicic magma systems commonly produce voluminous ignimbrites and associated caldera collapse events. Less conspicuous and relatively poorly documented are cases in which silicic magma chambers of similar size to those associated with caldera-forming events produce dominantly effusive eruptions of small-volume rhyolite domes and flows. The Bearhead Rhyolite and associated Peralta Tuff Member in the Jemez volcanic field, New Mexico, represent small-volume eruptions from a large silicic magma system in which no caldera-forming event occurred, and thus may have implications for the genesis and eruption of large volumes of silicic magma and the long-term evolution of continental silicic magma systems.⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating reveals that most units mapped as Bearhead Rhyolite and Peralta Tuff (the Main Group) were erupted during an ∼540 ka interval between 7.06 and 6.52 Ma. These rocks define a chemically coherent group of high-silica rhyolites that can be related by simple fractional crystallization models. Preceding the Main Group, minor amounts of unrelated trachydacite and low silica rhyolite were erupted at ∼11–9 and ∼8 Ma, respectively, whereas subsequent to the Main Group minor amounts of unrelated rhyolites were erupted at ∼6.1 and ∼1.5 Ma.The chemical coherency, apparent fractional crystallization-derived geochemical trends, large areal distribution of rhyolite domes (∼200 km²), and presence of a major hydrothermal system support the hypothesis that Main Group magmas were derived from a single, large, shallow magma chamber. The ∼540 ka eruptive interval demands input of heat into the system by replenishment with silicic melts, or basaltic underplating to maintain the Bearhead Rhyolite magma chamber.Although the volatile content of Main Group magmas was within the range of rhyolites from major caldera-forming eruptions such as the Bandelier and Bishop Tuffs, eruptions were smaller volume and dominantly effusive. Bearhead Rhyolite domes occur at the intersection of faults, and are cut by faults, suggesting that the magma chamber was structurally vented preventing volatiles from accumulating to levels high enough to trigger a caldera-forming eruption.     

长白山火山的历史与演化

长白山火山跨越中朝两国,在我国境内包括天池火山、望天鹅火山、图们江火山和龙岗火山,火山活动从上新世持续到近代,是我国最大的第四纪火山分布区。长白山火山的母岩浆是钾质粗面玄武岩,将长白山火山岩区称钾质粗面玄武岩省,岩浆结晶分异作用和混合作用主导了岩浆演化过程。天池火山之下地壳岩浆房和地幔岩浆房具双动式喷发特点,一方面来自地幔的钾质粗厨玄武岩浆直接喷出地表;另一方面钾质粗面玄武岩浆持续补给地壳岩浆房,发生岩浆分离结晶作用和混合作用,导致双峰式火山岩分布特征和触发千年大喷发。西太平洋板块俯冲-东北亚大陆弧后引张是长白山火山活动的动力学机制。     

Influence of pre-eruptive storage conditions and volatile contents on explosive Plinian style eruptions of basic magma

Sub-Plinian to Plinian eruptions of basic magma present a challenge to modeling volcanic behavior because many models rely on magma becoming viscous enough during ascent to behave brittlely and cause fragmentation. Such models are unable, however, to strain low viscosity magma fast enough for it to behave brittlely. That assumes that such magmas actually have low viscosities, but the rare Plinian eruptions of basic magma may in fact result from them being anomalously viscous. Here, we examine two such eruptions, the 122 B.C. eruption of hawaiitic basalt from Mt. Etna and the late Pleistocene eruption of basaltic andesite from Masaya Caldera, to test whether they were anomalously viscous. We carried out hydrothermal experiments on both magmas and analyzed glass inclusions in plagioclase phenocrysts from each to determine their most likely pre-eruptive temperatures and water contents. We find that the hawaiite was last stored at 1,000–1,020°C, whereas the basaltic andesite was last stored at 1,010–1,060°C, and that both were water saturated with ∼3.0 wt.% water dissolved in them. Such water contents are not high enough to trigger Plinian explosive behavior, as much more hydrous basic magmas erupt less violently. In addition, despite being relatively cool, the viscosities of both magmas would range from ∼10^2.2–2.5 Pa s before erupting to ∼10⁴ Pa s when essentially degassed, all of which are too fluid to cause brittle disruption. Without invoking special external forces to explain all such eruptions, one of the more plausible explanations is that when the bubble content reaches some critical value the fragile foam-like magma disrupts. The rarity of Plinian eruptions of basic magma may be because such magmas must ascend fast enough to retain their bubbles.     

Magma plumbing system beneath Ontake Volcano, central Japan

Ontake Volcano in central Japan was last active from ~ 100–35 Ka. The eruptions contained rhyodacite pumice and lavas in the first stage (stage O1, > 33 km³), followed by eruptions of andesite lavas and pyroclastics (stages O2 and O3, > 16 km³). Modeling of major and incompatible elements with Sr isotope ratios suggests that the primary magma was a high-alumina basalt. One andesite magma type appears to have evolved from the basalt in a closed system magma chamber, in part by fractional crystallization, and its generation included crustal assimilation. The other andesite magma type is considered to have evolved in an open system magma chamber in which repeated input of primary magma occurred together with wall-rock assimilation and fractional crystallization. The rhyodacite is inferred to have evolved in a closed system magma chamber by fractional crystallization of the second type of andesite. These genetic relationships require that the magma chamber functioned alternately as an open and a closed system. Geobarometry indicates that there may have been multiple magma chambers, located in the upper crust for the rhyodacite, near the upper–lower crust interface for the andesite and in the mid-lower crust for the basalt. These chambers were stacked to form the magma plumbing system of Ontake. Incompatible element compositions of the basalt are considered to have changed during the eruptions, suggesting that two different plumbing systems for stage O1 magma and for stages O2, O3 magmas existed during the 65 Ka of activity. Evolutionary history of the systems implies that the primary magma was introduced into the magma plumbing system each for ~ 17 500 years and that the life span of a magma plumbing system was shorter than 40 Ka.     

Caldera resurgence during magma replenishment and rejuvenation at Valles and Lake City calderas

A key question in volcanology is the driving mechanisms of resurgence at active, recently active, and ancient calderas. Valles caldera in New Mexico and Lake City caldera in Colorado are well-studied resurgent structures which provide three crucial clues for understanding the resurgence process. (1) Within the limits of ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating techniques, resurgence and hydrothermal alteration at both calderas occurred very quickly after the caldera-forming eruptions (tens of thousands of years or less). (2) Immediately before and during resurgence, dacite magma was intruded and/or erupted into each system; this magma is chemically distinct from rhyolite magma which was resident in each system. (3) At least 1?km of structural uplift occurred along regional and subsidence faults which were closely associated with shallow intrusions or lava domes of dacite magma. These observations demonstrate that resurgence at these two volcanoes is temporally linked to caldera subsidence, with the upward migration of dacite magma as the driver of resurgence. Recharge of dacite magma occurs as a response to loss of lithostatic load during the caldera-forming eruption. Flow of dacite into the shallow magmatic system is facilitated by regional fault systems which provide pathways for magma ascent. Once the dacite enters the system, it is able to heat, remobilize, and mingle with residual crystal-rich rhyolite remaining in the shallow magma chamber. Dacite and remobilized rhyolite rise buoyantly to form laccoliths by lifting the chamber roof and producing surface resurgent uplift. The resurgent deformation caused by magma ascent fractures the chamber roof, increasing its structural permeability and allowing both rhyolite and dacite magmas to intrude and/or erupt together. This sequence of events also promotes the development of magmatic–hydrothermal systems and ore deposits. Injection of dacite magma into the shallow rhyolite magma chamber provides a source of heat and magmatic volatiles, while resurgent deformation and fracturing increase the permeability of the system. These changes allow magmatic volatiles to rise and meteoric fluids to percolate downward, favouring the development of hydrothermal convection cells which are driven by hot magma. The end result is a vigorous hydrothermal system which is driven by magma recharge.     

The somma-vesuvius magma chamber: a petrological and volcanological approach

The volcanic history of Somma-Vesuvius indicates that salic products compatible with an origin by fractionation within a shallow magma chamber have been repeatedly erupted («Plinian» pumice deposits). The last two of these eruptions, (79 A.D. and 3500 B.P.) were carefully studied. Interaction with calcareous country rocks had limited importance, and all data indicate that differentiated magmas were produced by crystal-liquid fractionation within the undersaturated part of petrogeny’s residua system at about 1 kb water pressure. The solid-liquid trend indicates that the derivative magmas originated by fractionation of slightly but significantly different parental liquids. Some lavas of appropriate composition were selected as parental liquids to compute the entity of the fractionation. Results suggest that in both bases a fractionation of about 70 weight % was needed to produce liquids with the composition of the pumice. The combination of all data indicates that the two Plinian eruptions were fed by a magma chamber (3–4 km deep) having a volume of approx. 2.0–2.5 km³. The temperature of the magma that initially entered the chamber was about 1100°C, whereas the temperature of the residual liquids erupted was Plinian pumice was 800° and 850°C respectively. There is no evidence that such a magma chamber existed at Vesuvius after the 79 A.D. eruption. These results have relevant practical implications for volcanic hazard and monitoring and for geothermal energy.     

Density and viscosity gradients in zoned magma chambers, and their influence withdrawal dynamics

The liquid being sampled from a draining reservoir of density-stratified fluid, such as an erupting zoned magma chamber, is derived from a relatively thin withdrawal layer adjacent to the level of the chamber outlet. This is a consequence of the buoyancy force associated with the density gradient inhibiting vertical motion so that the opportunity for widely separated density levels (compositions) to be tapped and mingled syneruptively is suppressed.Density gradients in zoned chambers of 0.02 – 10 kgm⁻³/m are suggested by data from caldera-forming eruptions. Viscosity gradients can be specified for a given density gradient using calculated relationships between viscosity and density. Published compositional and geothermometric data are used to show that zoned high-silica rhyolites decrease in viscosity upward because of the roofward concentration of dissolved volatiles. Other zoned calc-alkaline magmas increase in viscosity upward because of decreasing temperature and concentration of network modifying cations.A method is developed of calculating the scale of the withdrawal layer thickness, δ, for given kinematic viscosity, eruption rate, and density and viscosity gradients. The method is systematized by the identification of specific flow regimes describing the action of either viscous or inertial forces in balancing the buoyancy force. Thin withdrawal layers are favoured by small eruption rates, small viscosity, and by large density gradients. For particularly steep density gradients, however, the consequently large viscosity gradient plays a role in determining the withdrawal layer thickness. Withdrawal layer thicknesses of the order of 100 m are calculated for typical pyroclastic eruptions of zoned acid magma, and are mostly independent of the viscosity gradient.The vertical scale at which a zoned chamber is instantaneously being tapped during an eruption is equal to the scale of the withdrawal layer thickness. Thus, an eruption that causes collapse of a caldera block through a height that is less than that of the withdrawal layer scale will produce magmas from deeper levels than that to which the chamber roof sinks. In this case the eruption is said to oversample the chamber with respect to the amount of caldera collapse and will produce an essentially constant range of compositions throughout. Alternatively, if the caldera collapse distance is much greater than δ then the selective withdrawal process leads to successive levels of the chamber being “skimmed off” (on a scale δ). This allows the compositional stratigraphy of the chamber to be inverted by the eruptive process, with little opportunity for syneruptive mixing between diverse magma compositions. The geological record shows that most calderas associated with zoned magmas collapsed through vertical distances in excess of 100 m (the characteristic estimate for δ) and, in agreement with our modelling of selective withdrawal, show smooth correlations between composition, or temperature, and the order of eruption.     

Modelling the dynamics and thermodynamics of volcanic degassing

 The rates of passive degassing from volcanoes are investigated by modelling the convective overturn of dense degassed and less dense gas-rich magmas in a vertical conduit linking a shallow degassing zone with a deep magma chamber. Laboratory experiments are used to constrain our theoretical model of the overturn rate and to elaborate on the model of this process presented by Kazahaya et al. (1994). We also introduce the effects of a CO₂–saturated deep chamber and adiabatic cooling of ascending magma. We find that overturn occurs by concentric flow of the magmas along the conduit, although the details of the flow depend on the magmas' viscosity ratio. Where convective overturn limits the supply of gas-rich magma, then the gas emission rate is proportional to the flow rate of the overturning magmas (proportional to the density difference driving convection, the conduit radius to the fourth power, and inversely proportional to the degassed magma viscosity) and the mass fraction of water that is degassed. Efficient degassing enhances the density difference but increases the magma viscosity, and this dampens convection. Two degassing volcanoes were modelled. At Stromboli, assuming a 2 km deep, 30% crystalline basaltic chamber, containing 0.5 wt.% dissolved water, the ∼700 kg s^–1 magmatic water flux can be modelled with a 4–10 m radius conduit, degassing 20–100% of the available water and all of the 1 to 4 vol.% CO₂ chamber gas. At Mount St. Helens in June 1980, assuming a 7 km deep, 39% crystalline dacitic chamber, containing 4.6 wt.% dissolved water, the ∼500 kg s^–1 magmatic water flux can be modelled with a 22–60 m radius conduit, degassing ∼2–90% of the available water and all of the 0.1 to 3 vol.% CO₂ chamber gas. The range of these results is consistent with previous models and observations. Convection driven by degassing provides a plausible mechanism for transferring volatiles from deep magma chambers to the atmosphere, and it can explain the gas fluxes measured at many persistently active volcanoes. Received: 26 September 1997 / Accepted: 11 July 1998     

Apoyo caldera, Nicaragua: A major quaternary silicic eruptive center

Apoyo caldera, near Granada, Nicaragua, was formed by two phases of collapse following explosive eruptions of dacite pumice about 23,000 yr B.P. The caldera sits atop an older volcanic center consisting of lava flows, domes, and ignimbrite (ash-flow tuff). The earliest lavas erupted were compositionally homogeneous basalt flows, which were later intruded by small andesite and dacite flows along a well defined set of N—S-trending regional faults. Collapse of the roof of the magma chamber occurred along near-vertical ring faults during two widely separated eruptions. Field evidence suggests that the climactic eruption sequence opened with a powerful plinian blast, followed by eruption column collapse, which generated a complex sequence of pyroclastic surge and ignimbrite deposits and initiated caldera collapse. A period of quiescence was marked by the eruption of scoria-bearing tuff from the nearby Masaya caldera and the development of a soil horizon. Violent plinian eruptions then resumed from a vent located within the caldera. A second phase of caldera collapse followed, accompanied by the effusion of late-stage andesitic lavas, indicating the presence of an underlying zoned magma chamber. Detailed isopach and isopleth maps of the plinian deposits indicate moderate to great column heights and muzzle velocities compared to other eruptions of similar volume. Mapping of the Apoyo airfall and ignimbrite deposits gives a volume of 17.2 km³ within the 1-mm isopach. Crystal concentration studies show that the true erupted volume was 30.5 km³ (10.7 km³ Dense Rock Equivalent), approximately the volume necessary to fill the caldera. A vent area located in the northeast quadrant of the present caldera lake is deduced for all the silicic pyroclastic eruptions. This vent area is controlled by N—S-trending precaldera faults related to left-lateral motion along the adjacent volcanic segment break. Fractional crystallization of calc-alkaline basaltic magma was the primary differentiation process which led to the intermediate to silicic products erupted at Apoyo. Prior to caldera collapse, highly atypical tholeiitic magmas resembling low-K, high-Ca oceanic ridge basalts were erupted along tension faults peripheral to the magma chamber. The injection of tholeiitic magmas may have contributed to the paroxysmal caldera-forming eruptions.     

Magma-water interactions in subaqueous and emergent basaltic

In the subaqueous growth and emergence of a basaltic volcano clasts are formed by one or a combination of (1) explosive release of magmatic volatiles; (2) explosive expansion and collapse of steam formed at magma-water contact surfaces; (3) explosive expansion of steam following enclosure of water in magma, or entrapment of water close to magma; and (4) cooling-contraction. These processes, named respectivelymagmatic explosivity, contact-surface steam explosivity, bulk interaction steam explosivity, andcooling-contraction granulation, can be enhanced by mutual interaction and feedback. The first three (explosive) processes are limited at certain water depths (hydrostatic pressures) and become increasingly vigorous at shallower levels. The depth of onset of magmatic explosivity depends largely on juvenile volatile content; it is up to 200 m for tholeiitic magmas and up to 1 km for alkalic magmas. At the depth where formation of clastic deposits becomes predominant over effusion of lavas, magmatic explosivity is subordinate to steam explosivity as a clast-forming process. The upward transition to accumulation of dominantly clastic deposits is not simply related to the onset of substantial exsolution of magmatic volatiles and can occur without it. Contact-surface explosivity commonly requires initiation by a vigorous impact between magma and water and, although no certain depth limit is known, likelihood of such explosivity decreases rapidly with depth. Clast generation by bulk interaction explosivity appears to be restricted to depths much shallower than that of the critical pressure of water, which in sea water is at about 3 km. Cooling-contraction granulation can occur in any depth of water, but at shallow levels may be replaced by contact-surface explosivity. During continuous eruption under water, tephra can be ejected and deposited within a cupola of steam such that rapid quenching does not occur. Emergent volcanoes are characterized by distinctive steam-explosive activity that results primarily from a bulk interaction between rapidly ascending magma and a highly mobile slurry of clastic material, water, and steam. The water gets into the vent by flooding across or through the top of the tephra pile, and violent explosions cease when this access is sealed. The eruptions during emergence of Surtsey and Capelinhos typify the distinctive explosive activity, the style and controls of which are different from those of maar volcanoes.     

Crystal size distributions and other quantitative textural measurements in lavas and tuff from Egmont volcano (Mt. Taranaki), New Zealand

 The size, shape and orientation of plagioclase crystals have been quantified in a tuff and series of andesite lavas from the active Egmont volcano (Mt. Taranaki), New Zealand. Linear crystal size distributions (CSDs) show that if the magma had several components, then only one provided the crystals. The slope of the CSD indicates that the earliest lavas measured had a residence time of ∼50 years in the magma chamber for a growth rate of 10^–11 cm/s. Subsequent lavas had slightly longer residence times (50–75 years), but the following series returned to 50-year residence times. The youngest magmas, from both Egmont summit and the parasitic Fantham's Peak, have the shortest residence times of ∼30 years. Variations in residence time may reflect changes in the magma chamber shape or depth, or the temperature of the surrounding rocks. Crystal shapes and zonation suggest that crystallization occurred in a bottle-shape magma chamber, and not in a narrow conduit. If future eruptions use the same magma chamber as the most recent eruptions, then a delay of approximately 30 years can be expected between refilling and eruption. Received: 25 October 1995 / Accepted: 19 April 1996     

On the eruptions, deformation, and seismicity of Klyuchevskoy Volcano, Kamchatka in 1986–2005 and the mechanisms of its activity

The eruptions, seismicity, and deformations, the properties of the magma feeding, and the mechanism of the activity of Klyuchevskoy, a giant basaltic volcano in Kamchatka, are considered. Twenty-eight author’s papers on the above subjects, published from 1985 to 2006, are reviewed. The activity of Klyuchevskoy the adventive and summit eruptions of Klyuchevskoy from 1986 to 2005 is described. The seismicity of Klyuchevskoy from 1986 to 2005 and its relation to eruptions are considered. It was inferred from geodetic measurements that the center of the magmatic pressure beneath the volcano moved in the depth range from 3 to 25 km during the period from 1979 to 2005. Based on previously developed models and observations from 1986 to 2005, the main properties of the Klyuchevskoy magma feeding system and the magma ascent in five major parts of the system are described and characterized: near the top of the plunging Pacific plate (with a depth of approximately 160 km), in the asthenosphere (160 to 40 km), in the region of the intermediate magma chamber where the magmas coming from below are accumulated (40 to 20 km), in the crust (20 to 5 km), and in the upper part of the system (from a depth of 5 km under the volcanic edifice to the crater at an altitude of 4.75 km). A comparison between the outputs from the summit and adventive eruptions on Klyuchevskoy as functions of time for the period from 1978 to 2005 shows that the probability of adventive eruptions should increase in the future.     

Role of precursory less-viscous mixed magma in the eruption of phenocryst-rich magma: evidence from the Hokkaido-Komagatake 1929 eruption

During the 1929 activity of Hokkaido-Komagatake volcano, the Plinian eruption of a phenocryst-rich andesite was preceded by a small eruption of more mafic magma formed by magma mixing. A similar eruption sequence has been reported for some other eruptions (Pallister et al. 1996; Venezky and Rutherford 1997), suggesting that eruption of a mixed magma is a precursor of phenocryst-rich magmas. For the purpose of understanding the tapping processes of the phenocryst-rich magma chamber, we investigated the temporal variation in the erupted magma and estimated the viscosity and density of the end-member and mixed magmas with constraints drawn from petrography. For the precursory mixed magma we estimate 33dž vol.% phenocrysts, andesitic-dacitic melt composition, 3 wt.% H₂O content, and temperature of 1040°C. In comparison, for the climactic, silicic end-member magma we estimate 48Dž vol.% phenocryst, high-silica rhyolitic melt, 3 wt.% H₂O, and temperature of 950°C, respectively. The mafic end-member magma, which was not erupted, is thought to be an almost aphyric basaltic-andesitic magma, based on mass balance calculation of the phenocryst content. The proportion of the mafic end-member magma component in the mixed magma was calculated to be 20-40 wt.%. On the basis of these data, we estimate magma viscosities of 10^3.9, 10^6.9, and 10^2.0 Pa s for the mixed, silicic end-member, and mafic end-member magmas, respectively. The calculated density differences among these magmas are inconsequential when possible errors are considered. We calculate the minimum excess pressure required for dike propagation to be 31 MPa for the silicic end-member magma and 8 MPa for the mixed magma, using the estimated viscosity and dike propagation model of Rubin (1995). If we assume that excess pressure is limited by the wall rock strength of the magma chamber, excess pressure retainable in the magma chamber is less than ca. 20 MPa. This suggests that the mixed magma was able to ascend to the surface without freezing, whereas the viscous silicic end-member magma could not. The formation and precursory eruption of the mixed magma are, therefore, effective and necessary initiation processes for the phenocryst-rich, viscous magma eruption.     

Influence de la Nature des Magmas sur l’Activité Phréatomagmatique: Approche Volcanologique et Thermodynamique

Many volcanic forms resulting from phreatomagmatic eruptions of differentiated magmas have been studied in the Massif Central (France), in the Phlegrean Fields (Italy), and on Saõ Miguel island (Azores). They show a continuous series between explosion crater maar type — and the hyaoloclastic tuff-cone. An essential feature of this morphological series is the preponderance of tuff-rings resulting from subaerial eruptions. Subaerial tuff-rings of basic compositions are less common than maars. A thermodynamic approach shows that the quantity of heat supplied by the different kinds of magmas and the water / magma ratio are the essential parameters controlling the activity, and the resulting morohology of these volcanoes.     

Compositionally diverse magmas erupted close together in space and time within a Karoo flood basalt crater complex

Geochemical data and mapping from a Karoo flood basalt crater complex reveals new information about the ascent and eruption of magma batches during the earliest phases of flood basalt volcanism. Flood basalt eruptions at Sterkspruit, South Africa began with emplacement of thin lava flows before abruptly switching to explosive phreatomagmatic and magmatic activity that formed a nest of craters, spatter and tuff rings and cones that collectively comprise a crater complex >40 km² filled by 9–18 km³ of volcaniclastic debris. Rising magma flux rates combined with reduced access of magma to external water led to effusion of thick Karoo flood basalts, burying the crater-complex beneath the >1.5 km-thick Lesotho lava pile. Geochemical data is consistent with flood basalt effusion from local dikes, and some lava flows likely shared or re-occupied vent sites active during explosive eruptions at Sterkspruit. Flood basalt magmas involved in Sterkspruit eruptions were chemically heterogenous. This study documents the rapid (perhaps simultaneous) eruption of three chemically distinct basaltic magmas which cannot be simply related to one another from one vent site within the Sterkspruit crater complex. Stratigraphic and map relationships indicate that eruption of the same three magma types took place from closely spaced vents over a short time during formation of the bulk of the crater-complex. Two magma types recognized there have not been recognized in the Karoo province before. The variable composition of flood basalts at Sterkspruit argues that magma batches in flood basalt fields may be small (0.5–1 km³) and not simply related to one another. This implies in turn that heterogeneities in the magma source region may be close to each other in time and space, and that eruptions of chemically distinct magmas may take place over short intervals of space and time without significant hybridisation in flood basalt fields.     

Major changes in the post-glacial evolution of magmatic compositions and pre-eruptive conditions of Llaima Volcano,Andean Southern Volcanic Zone,Chile

Llaima is one of the most active volcanoes of the Chilean volcanic front with recent explosive eruptions in 2008 and 2009. Understanding how the volcano evolved to its present state is essential for predictions of its future behavior. The post-glacial succession of explosive volcanic eruptions of Llaima stratovolcano started with two caldera-forming eruptions at ～16 and ～15 ka, that emplaced two large-volume basaltic-andesitic ignimbrites (unit I). These are overlain by a series of fall deposits (unit II) changing from basaltic-andesitic to dacitic compositions with time. The prominent compositionally zoned, dacitic to andesitic Llaima pumice (unit III) was formed by a large Plinian eruption at ～10 ka that produced andesitic surge deposits (unit IV) in its terminal phase. The following unit V represents a time interval of ～8,000 years during which at least 30 basaltic to andesitic ash and lapilli fall deposits with intercalated volcaniclastic sediments and paleosols were emplaced. Bulk rock, mineral, and glass chemical data constrain stratigraphic changes in magma compositions and pre-eruptive conditions that we interpret in terms of four distinct evolutionary phases. Phase 1 (=unit I) magmas have lower large ion lithophile (LIL)/high field strength (HFS) element ratios compared to younger magmas and thus originated from a mantle source less affected by slab-derived fluids. They differentiated in a reservoir at mid-crustal level. During the post-caldera phase 2 (=units II–IV), relatively long residence times between eruptions allowed for increasingly differentiated magmas to form in a reservoir in the middle crust. Fractional crystallization led to volatile enrichment and oversaturation and is the driving force for the large Plinian eruption of the most evolved (unit III) dacite at Llaima, although replenishment by hot andesite probably triggered the eruption. During the subsequent phase 3 (=unit V >3 ka), frequent mafic replenishments at mid-crustal storage levels favored shorter residence times limiting erupted magma compositions to water-undersaturated basaltic andesites and andesites. At around 3 ka, the magma storage level for phase 4 (=unit V <3 ka to present) shifted to the uppermost crust where the hot magmas partly assimilated the granitic country rock. Although water contents of these basaltic andesites were low, the low-pressure storage facilitated water saturation before eruption. The change in magma storage level at 3 ka was responsible for the dramatic increase in eruption frequency compared to the older Llaima history. We suggest that the change from middle to upper crust magma storage is caused by a change in the stress regime below Llaima from transpression to tension.     

Iblean diatremes 3: volcanic processes on a Miocene carbonate platform (Iblean Mountains,SE-Sicily): a comparison of deep vs. shallow marine eruptive processes

Evolution and magma fragmentation processes of two contrasting, well-exposed diatreme complexes interbedded with Late Miocene calcareous marine sediments in distinct sedimentary environments of a carbonate platform (Iblean Plateau, Sicily) are compared with each other. The nephelinitic Cozzo Molino diatreme (CMD) to the east developed in shallow water (0–80 m water depth); the alkali basaltic Valle Guffari seamount (VGS) to the west grew on a deeper water carbonate ramp (150–200 m water depth). We focus on the dominant boundary conditions inferred to have governed depth of magma fragmentation and subaqueous emplacement mechanisms: water depth, physical nature of host rocks, magma composition, and inferred differences in initial volatile concentrations. There are gross similarities in the composition of the two moderately evolved magmas. The low-viscosity magmas in both diatremes were laden with xenoliths originating from mantle to lower crustal sites. Although similar, the eastern shallow water CMD was likely more volatile-rich, with magma fragmented prior to reaching the surface and the surrounding tephra cone was partly emergent. The eruptions of the entirely submarine VGS diatreme complex in the deeper water environment were dominated by interaction of soft sediment and alkali basaltic magma or a pre-fragmented volatile-particle mixture. Eruption columns were, thus, strongly damped and the submarine complex never pierced the water surface.     

Volatile-rich magma injection into the feeding system during the 2001 eruption of Mt. Etna (Italy): its role on explosive activity and change in rheology of lavas

The explosive behavior and the rheology of lavas in basaltic volcanoes, usually driven by differentiation, can also be significantly affected by the kinetics of magma degassing in the upper portion of the feeding system. The complex eruption of 2001 at Mt. Etna, Italy, was marked by two crucial phenomena that occurred at the Laghetto vent on the southern flank of the volcano: 1) intense explosive activity and 2) at the end of the eruption, emission of a lava flow with higher viscosity than flows previously emitted from the same vent. Here, we investigate the hypothesis that these events were driven by the injection of volatile-rich magma into the feeding system. The input and mixing of this magma into a reservoir containing more evolved magma had the twofold effect of increasing 1) the overall concentration of volatiles and 2) their exsolution with consequent efficient vesiculation and degassing. This led to an explosive stage of the eruption, which produced a ~75-m-high cinder cone. Efficient volatile loss and the consequent increase of the liquidus temperature brought about the nucleation of Fe-oxides and other anhydrous crystalline phases, which significantly increased the magma viscosity in the upper part of the conduit, leading to the emission of a high viscosity lava flow that ended the eruption. The 2001 eruption has offered the opportunity to investigate the important role that input of volatile-rich magma may exert in controlling not only the geochemical features of erupted lavas but also the eruption dynamics. These results present a new idea for interpreting similar eruptions in other basaltic volcanoes and explaining eruptions with uncommonly high explosivity when only basic magmas are involved.