西藏仲巴地区白垩纪末期—始新世早期海相地层

西藏仲巴县北部地区出露有晚白垩世至古近纪的海相地层 ,本次工作新测制了卓勒剖面 ,并对原错江顶剖面上部地层做了再次研究。地层中化石丰富 ,据有孔虫化石研究结果重新厘定曲下组时代为古新世早期、加拉孜组上段属始新世早期 ,认为该区白垩 /古近纪界线位于曲贝亚组与曲下组之间。在这一界面上 ,古新世磨拉石直接覆于晚白垩世的陆棚碳酸盐台地沉积之上 ,其间存在沉积间断 ,为弧前盆地演化后期的重大沉积转变。古新世早期曲下组为近海相磨拉石沉积 ,古新世晚期至始新世早期加拉孜组为残留海盆沉积。加拉孜组顶部为该区最高海相地层 ,其上为冈底斯群的磨拉石不整合覆盖。冈底斯群的时代应晚于始新世中期。     

古南海俯冲过程:婆罗洲晚白垩世-渐新世地层沉积记录

古南海的俯冲消亡是深入揭示南海扩张机制和重塑东南亚中新生代构造演化的关键,然而目前对于古南海的俯冲过程仍存在诸多争议。马来西亚婆罗洲出露完整的晚白垩世-渐新世沉积地层,是研究古南海构造演化的重要窗口。本文通过碎屑矿物组成、元素地球化学及Nd同位素分析,对婆罗洲晚白垩世-渐新世地层沉积物来源进行示踪,反演区域古地理格局及构造演化。结果显示,晚白垩世-古新世Rajang群沉积物主要来源于古太平洋俯冲形成的岩浆岩带,马来半岛与印支陆块南缘对古新世-晚渐新世地层沉积贡献明显增加,暗示古太平洋板块俯冲的影响持续到早古新世(～60 Ma)。晚始新世,随着澳大利亚板块持续向北漂移,婆罗洲逆时针旋转引起残余海盆剪刀式闭合。～37Ma,曾母陆块与婆罗洲碰撞, Rajang群抬升剥蚀。渐新世,古南海在婆罗洲东北部沙巴开始俯冲,对应于南海的打开。古南海自西向东斜向俯冲消亡,婆罗洲的逆时针旋转与沿卢帕尔线的走滑使Rajang群与Kuching超级群叠置。     

西藏岗巴古新世地层及构造作用的影响

西藏岗巴地区出露有完整的晚白垩世至古近纪地层，地层中化石丰富，根据化石研究准确地进行了地层时代的划分，本文认为该区白垩系－古代系界线位于宗山组和基堵拉组之间，以底栖有大孔虫Orbitoides-Omphalocyclus动物群的消亡和Rotalia-Smoutina-Lockhartia动物群的始现为标志。界线上下岩层为假整合接触，期间有一短暂的暴露面。古新世的砂砾岩直接覆于晚白晋世的陆棚碳酸盐岩沉积之上，沉积的重大转变代表一次构造运动，印度大陆北缘与冈底斯南缘直至白垩纪末均具有明显的浅海生物地理分区现象，期间被深海盆地地所阻隔。古新世开始浅海相动物群在该地显示同一生物地理区系特征，说明两大陆间深水盆地的阻隔已消失，南北生物地理区同归于一残留海盆，沉积类型转变和地层古生物特征为印度－亚洲板块的起始碰撞时间研究提供了基础资料，据此推测大陆早期碰撞发生在白晋系－古近系的界线时期（约65Ma)，古新世中一晚期碳酸盐台地遭受不断的挤压与变形，进一步说明大陆的碰撞在古新世之初就已发生。沉积地层的破碎变形和滑塌堆积是持续碰撞与挤压的结果。     

扬子地台新元古代碳酸盐盖帽碳、氧同位素研究

地质历史上最严重的冰期发生在新元古代末期（约635 Ma），其结束的标志是沉积了一层薄薄的、横向连续展布的、δ13C呈明显负异常的碳酸盐盖帽。地质学家提出了多种成因模型来解释碳酸盐盖帽δ13C负漂移，最著名的有：生物产率下降说，滞留海水翻转说的甲烷渗漏分解说。对黔南、浙西新元古代碳酸盐盖帽碳氧同位素研究表明，δ13C负异是甲烷渗漏和海水翻腾共同作用的结果。理由如下：① 贵州瓮安和朵丁剖面的岩石结构与现代古代甲烷渗漏形成的碳酸盐沉积相似；② 碳酸盐盖帽上覆的浅水相磷块岩沉积为海水倒转说提供了佐证，因为浅水区磷质来源于水体倒转时携带的深海磷。始于 Marrinoan 冰期结束的海水倒转导致碳酸盐盖帽的形成，并促使磷块岩在浅水区域的沉积成矿。水体倒转的另一效应是将深海负δ13C 的碳酸盐带到浅水区域，碳酸盐盖帽和上覆磷块岩的负δ13C值证实了这一点。     

胶莱盆地及其邻区白垩纪－古新世沉积构造演化历史及其区域动力学意义

基于野外和钻孔测井资料分析、火山岩同位素年代学分析 (40Ar-39Ar and SHRIMP U-Pb)、地震剖面的构造解释、断层运动学的野外分析结果,综合研究了胶莱盆地及其邻区白垩纪－古新世沉积构造演化历史。岩性地层分析表明,胶莱断陷盆地由三套地层单元所充填：早白垩世莱阳群和青山群、晚白垩世－古新世王氏群。青山群火山岩的同位素年代学测试结果给出了该火山岩的喷发时代在120～105 Ma。地震剖面的构造解译结果揭示胶莱盆地伸展构造受到深部两个拆离构造系统控制：一个发育于盆地南部地区,拆离断面位于深部8~10 km,向南缓倾于苏鲁造山带之下;另一个拆离系统由一系列北倾的犁式断层组成、分布于宽阔的胶莱盆地北部地区,主拆离面向北倾。这两个拆离系统分别形成于早白垩世莱阳群和晚白垩世-古新世王氏群沉积阶段。通过对不同地层单元断层滑动矢量的野外测量和古构造应力场反演,以及地层时代和同位素年代学测试结果的制约,建立了白垩纪－古新世构造应力场演替的年代序列。结果表明,胶莱盆地在白垩纪-古新世之间经历了伸展－挤压应力体制的交替演化。早白垩世伸展作用经历了两个不同的阶段：早期NW-SE向伸展和晚期近W-E向伸展。在早白垩世末期至晚白垩世初期,盆地遭受NW-SE向挤压,导致了胶莱盆地的缩短变形和郯庐断裂带的左旋走滑活动。晚白垩世－古新世时期,构造应力场转变为N-S向伸展,直到古新世末期,构造应力场转换为NE－SW向挤压。胶莱盆地和沂沭裂谷系白垩纪－古新世沉积构造演化历史对华北地区岩石圈减薄过程的动力学背景提供了重要的构造地质学制约。笔者推断,早白垩世两期引张应力作用是分别对华北地区增厚地壳或岩石圈的重力垮塌和岩石圈拆沉的响应,而早白垩世末期NW-SE向挤压记录了古太平洋板块与亚洲陆缘俯冲碰撞产生的远程效应。晚白垩世-古新世的引张伸展作用完全不同于早白垩世伸展构造,它指示了沿NNE向郯庐断裂带的右旋走滑活动及其拉分作用,在动力学上受到青藏地区块体的陆－陆碰撞产生的远程效应和古太平洋板块向亚洲大陆俯冲作用的联合应力场控制。     

晚白垩世—古近纪华南蒸发岩矿床形成的构造和气候耦合控制

晚白垩世—古近纪,华南陆相断陷红盆沉积了石盐、硬石膏、钙芒硝等蒸发岩矿床,在部分盆地中还发现深层富钾锂卤水矿床,以及杂卤石矿层等.这些矿床既是晚白垩世—古近纪东亚古气候和构造事件耦合的产物,又记录了这些地质事件,具有重要的研究价值.本文研究华南地区典型蒸发岩盆地的沉积地层学特征,梳理主要蒸发岩矿床的空间分布和地层特征,探讨矿床的构造和古气候控制因素.蒸发岩的岩相学特征表明,大部分矿床为原生沉积,形成于常年性的盐湖环境,主成矿期为晚白垩世、晚古新世、晚始新世-早渐新世.中生代太平洋板块西向俯冲和后撤引起华南构造体系转换和强烈的板内构造变形,造就一系列北东-南西向展布的雁列式排列断陷盆地,为蒸发岩矿床提供了构造容矿空间.在晚白垩世,华南由西风环流系统控制,水汽主要来源于大陆西侧的特提斯海,在远离水汽来源的江西会昌和吉泰盆地,以及江苏淮安凹陷率先沉积白垩系盐岩和硬石膏矿床.肇始于古新世的青藏高原阶段隆升及其关联的特提斯海西退,削弱了西风环流系统由西向东输入华南的水汽供给,致使蒸发岩沉积在晚古新世扩展至江汉盆地、衡阳盆地、南襄盆地等;晚始新世-早渐新世交替的34 Ma,全球急剧变冷、南极永久冰盖形成、海平面大幅下降,导致整个中国东部大部分陆相红盆沉积蒸发岩,成为规模最大、扩展范围最广的一次盐类沉积成矿期.进入晚渐新世,随着青藏高原隆升到一定高度,雨热同期的东亚季风环流系统逐步成型,并扩展至华北地区,华南蒸发岩结束成矿期.     

北冰洋罗蒙诺索夫海岭晚自垩世以来的沉积环境演变与烃源岩特征：IODP302证据

北冰洋首次大洋钻探（IODP302）在罗蒙诺索夫海岭获取了晚白垩世以来的沉积记录,为认识该区的沉积环境演变及烃原岩特征提供依据。该区晚白垩世以来有两次大的沉积间断：晚白垩世一晚古新世（80～56Ma）和中始新世一早中新世（44—17．5Ma）。有沉积纪录的晚古新世一中始新世（56～44Ma）,平均沉积速率为12．8m／Ma;早中新世以来（0～17．5Ma）,平均沉积速率11．4m／Ma。从沉积物特征及有机碳含量来看,该钻孔可以分成上下两部分：下部,古新世一中始新世,主要为灰黑色粉砂质泥岩,处于还原环境,TOC含量很高,为1．77％～6．30％;上部,中中新世以来,沉积物颜色呈条带状,主要为氧化环境,TOC含量很低,〈0．4％。对全岩进行Rock—Eval指标测定,表明中始新世富有机碳沉积物大多有很好的生烃潜力,而晚白垩世、晚古新世生烃潜力较差。Tmax与月。值表明,钻孔的晚白垩世和古新世沉积物有机质尚处于未成熟状态,没有生烃;因此中始新统的中部较高的s1值,可能是由于烃类产生于其他更成熟的层位后运移至该处聚集的结果。     

华北和华南地块显生极移曲线的初步研究

我门的研究表明华北和华南地块有着复杂的地质历史.寒武纪时,这两个地块似乎均是冈瓦纳大陆的一部分,但它们是相互分离的,华南地块位于古赤道上,靠近澳大利亚的北部,而华北地块位于南纬35°.靠近伊朗、西藏和印度北部.在晚奥(?)世到石炭纪期间,冈瓦纳大陆穿过南极,发生古纬度带的倒转.然后,华北地块带着华南地块一起向北漂移.在晚石炭世和早二叠世,华北地块到达古赤道附近.二叠纪时,华北地块位于古地中海中,与伊朗、土耳其和阿拉伯毗邻.泥盆纪时,华南地块已与澳大利亚分离开,并向华北地块漂移.在晚石炭世和早二叠世,华北地块和华南地块以及印度支那地块位于古地中海中,晚二叠世,华北地块开始向北漂移,沿中亚褶皱带与西伯利亚地块碰撞.然而,直到中侏罗世,华北和华南地块才焊接在一起.自新生代开始以来,当印度板块向北漂移并与欧亚板块碰撞时,中国地块被进一步向东推挤.特别是华南地块相对于欧亚北部已向东漂移.     

柴达木盆地构造古地理分析

研究的目的是分析柴达木盆地显生宙构造古地理特征和盆地叠合过程。在寒武纪—泥盆纪 ,柴达木板块处于低纬度区 ,从寒武纪时的南纬 4 1°往北漂移到泥盆纪时的北纬 10 6° ,与塔里木、华北、扬子等块体有较大的纬度差 ,表明柴达木板块在该时期是一个并不隶属于其它任何板块的独立的块体 :与华北板块之间以北祁连洋相隔 ,与塔里木板块之间以阿尔金洋相隔 ,与中昆仑地块之间以东昆仑洋相隔 ,柴达木板块内部也被赛什腾—锡铁山洋所分隔。这些洋盆经历了寒武纪—早、中奥陶世张裂阶段和晚奥陶世—早、中泥盆世聚敛阶段 ,最终于中泥盆世末期闭合。该时期在柴达木盆地内部 ,叠合在震旦纪大陆裂谷盆地之上的是寒武—奥陶纪台地—陆棚相碳酸盐岩和碎屑岩建造 ,生物发育 ;志留纪—早、中泥盆世柴达木盆地以隆起为特征。石炭纪—三叠纪柴达木板块继续北移 ,石炭纪时位于北纬 11 9° ,二叠纪时位于北纬 12 7° ,三叠纪时位于北纬 2 2 2° ,该时期柴达木板块已与华北板块、塔里木板块拼合 ,但与羌塘板块之间以南昆仑洋相隔 ,柴达木处于南昆仑洋的弧后部位 ,叠加在早期盆地之上的是石炭纪—早二叠世滨岸—台地—陆棚相碳酸盐岩、碎屑岩夹煤线。晚二叠世—三叠纪柴达木盆地再度隆升。侏罗纪以来 ,柴达木板块缓慢北     

喜马拉雅山北坡奥陶纪—古近纪构造古地磁新数据

在喜马拉雅山北坡奥陶系—古近系近乎连续的沉积地层中系统采集古地磁样品3791件,其中测试统计样品数为2920件,基本获取了统级年代古地磁数据,绘制出喜马拉雅地块奥陶纪—古近纪古地磁极移曲线和古纬度变化曲线。喜马拉雅地块在向北漂移过程中曾发生了多次旋转,最后一次约28°的顺时针旋转发生在始新世,可能与西喜马拉雅构造结形成有关;晚三叠世和晚侏罗世曾发生了纬度为2°和3.8°的向南回返,可能与雅鲁藏布新特提斯洋弧后扩张有关。根据古纬度数据推算:中白垩世雅鲁藏布新特提斯洋盆的宽度至少为2200km;始新世以来的喜马拉雅陆-陆碰撞造山运动导致印度地块-喜马拉雅褶冲带-拉萨地块之间的地壳缩短量至少为1000km。     

Drowning history of a Miocene carbonate platform (Zhujiang Formation, South China Sea)

The identification and interpretation of drowning events in the geologic record can aid significantly to the reconstruction of the depositional, tectonic and eustatic history of a study area and often improve reservoir and seal prediction in carbonate rocks. The differentiation between drowned platforms showing a record of continuous deepening and those with a record of exposure followed by rapid deepening remains, however, problematic. The Zhujiang carbonate platform (Liuhua 11-1 field, South China Sea) study shown here provides an example of an integrated approach combining high-resolution geochemistry, microfacies analyses and foraminiferal biostratigraphy in order to improve the reconstruction of environmental conditions prior, during and after platform demise and drowning. The Zhujiang carbonate platform displays the following vertical succession of four facies types i) skeletal grain facies with a miogypsinid/lepidocyclinid-dominated fauna deposited in a moderately deep (< 50 m), oligotrophic back-reef setting; ii) in situ corals in patch-reef facies in an oligotrophic lagoon (< 10 m); iii) rhodoid facies with in situ red algal crusts, dominated by Heterostegina sp. and spiroclypeids, possibly capped by a subaerial exposure surface. Well-rounded rhodoids representing a mesotrophic lagoon dominate the upper portions of the rhodoid facies; iv) pelagic marine shales of the Hanjiang Formation burying the carbonate platform after drowning. This facies succession, in combination with geochemical evidence suggests a deepening-upward trend. This trend might have been interrupted by transient subaerial exposure but no evidence for meteoric diagenesis was found at the drowning unconformity topping the carbonate platform. Instead, microfacies analyses suggest that platform demise may be related to progressive changes in environmental conditions, including increasing nutrient-levels and/or decreasing temperature up-core towards the drowning unconformity. These findings are of significance for those concerned with Miocene carbonate factories and, more specifically, the demise of carbonate platforms in general.     

The Oligocene gap in the formation of Co-rich ferromanganese crusts and sedimentation in the Pacific Ocean and the effects of bottom currents

The Marcus Wake and Magellan guyots formed about 129–74 Ma ago at 10°–30° S and drifted 1700–4400 km to their present-day latitudinal position across the equatorial zone of maximum deposition. Cooling of the Pacific plate brought these guyots to the northern arid zone during the Turonian–Maastrichtian, to depths at which sediment accumulation rates were low and the conditions promoted precipitation of Co-rich Fe–Mn crusts from the Campanian to the present. Nonprecipitation of Co-rich Fe–Mn crusts during the Oligocene was caused by the action of bottom currents. The presence of a hiatus identified in cores from drill holes was used as the basis for reconstruction of the directions of bottom currents in the Oligocene.     

Peculiarities of the distribution of rare-earth elements and yttrium in mineral phases of the ferromanganese crusts from the Detroit guyot (Pacific Ocean)

The concentrations of rare-earth elements and yttrium (REY) were first determined in four major mineral fractions of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts (CMC) from the Detroit guyot at the northern latitudes of the Pacific Ocean. It was shown that REY in the CMC from these latitudes are mainly adsorbed by the manganese phase unlike the crusts of the equatorial part of the ocean where iron hydroxides are the key REY sorbents from seawater. This is caused by the variations in the hydrochemical characteristics of seawater with the latitude of the CMC formation.     

New paleontological data on Govorov,Vulkanolog, and Kocebu guyots (Magellan Seamounts,Pacific)

The work aims to present new biostratigraphic data on Govorov, Vulkanolog, and Kocebu guyots of the western branch of the Magellan Seamounts (NW Pacific). The data were obtained during the voyage of R/V Gelendzhik in 2014. Analysis of the paleontological data on planktonic foraminifers, radiolarians, and corals allows us to distinguish several stratigraphic levels, ranging from Early Cretaceous to Pleistocene in age, which define the stages of geological development of the studied area. Based on the representative material on the planktonic foraminifers from layer I-2 of the ore crusts on Govorov guyot, it is established that this layer was deposited in the narrow age interval of 40.0–40.5 Ma. The data obtained clearly indicate the connection of the crust ore genesis on the seamounts with regional paleoceanic events.     

An ocean-facing Aptian–Albian carbonate margin, Oman

A high-energy Aptian–Albian platform margin in northern Oman fronted onto an open oceanic basin, making the area a valuable analogue for coeval guyot margins. Most similar aged carbonate margins described in the literature faced either intracratonic or minor oceanic basins. The studied margin is characterized by a stabilized outer rim, which, although it did not rise discernibly above the adjacent lagoonal deposits, flanked a steep upper slope (32–40°) basinwards with a relief of at least 30 m. Two main facies provided the rigidity of the outer margin: Lithocodium boundstones that constituted up to 50% of the rock volume; and marine fibrous cements that occluded up to 35% of primary pore space. In contrast, coral–rudist patches and other shelly sessile benthos were distributed irregularly, and the rudist bioherms of the outer margin were often disrupted, with shells being transported and redeposited. The inner margin is characterized by wedge-shaped storm layers that radiate from the platform top lagoonwards, where they interdigitate with carbonate sands and small rudist bioherms. Polygenetic discontinuity surfaces that bear evidence of both marine hardground and subaerial exposure stages are prominent features of the margin. Throughout the latest Aptian to Middle Albian, the platform succession recorded some 30 relative sea-level falls, of which seven reached amplitudes of many tens of metres. These seven high-amplitude falls in sea level are recorded across the entire south-eastern portion of the Arabian craton and are probably of eustatic origin.     

Geochemical zoning in ferromanganese crusts of Ita-MaiTai guyot

Samples of ferromanganese crusts dredged from Ita-MaiTai guyot (Magellan seamounts, Pacific Ocean) were studied. They are made up of a complete stratigraphic section of different-age layers, including unique oldest relict layers in some samples. The study of trace, rare-earth, and noble element (including Pt and Pd) distribution showed that old layers differ from young ones in terms of Co, TR, S, As, and P. In addition, composition of the crusts significantly varies depending on the spatial position of sample in the guyot. In some zones, crusts enriched in trace elements were generated both in the Pleistocene and Paleogene. Significant variations established in trace element composition of different-age layers indicate that trace element composition of the crusts notably evolved with time, which could be caused by productivity of biocenosis or change in the formation depth of crusts on the guyot due to vertical tectonic movements.     

Palaeokarst, tidal erosion surfaces and stromatolites in the Silurian Eke Formation of Gotland, Sweden

Irregular, scalloped erosion surfaces in the shelf carbonate sequences of the lower Eke Formation (Ludlow Series, upper Silurian) in the east of Gotland, Sweden, comprise series of shallow hollows separated by sharp-crested ridges, and cavities with sculptured, undercut walls, cut into lithified sediment. These represent analogues of the solution basins formed in modern coastal and subaerial karst terrains. Discrete erosional cavities merge on enlargement by breaching of the intervening walls to leave remnant, tapering ridges. Sets of the ridges and basins seen in surface view show an average width of basins of 1–2 m, with relief of 40–50 cm and pronounced N-S axes for the ridges; this alignment may reflect the local drainage direction. The lowermost erosion surface passes laterally into a planar, mineralized horizon at the top of the underlying Hemse Group that was resistant to and forms the base level of erosion. Because of restricted exposure of higher Eke Formation sediments the upper limit of erosion remains unknown. There is no evidence of caliche or subaerial diagenetic textures, but solution vugs are common in the eroded limestones. Marine hard-bottom biota attached to some surfaces, and transition from scalloped to planar surfaces indicate erosion in tidal zones, but subaerial karstic erosion is also inferred. The resubmerged karst-eroded topography is overlain by shallow marine carbonates, including small organic buildups. Finely-layered stromatolitic mats developed over the initial infill, in subtidal environments, and grew to form domed mounds within the erosional cavities. They abut sharply against bounding side walls and overhangs. Some emergence is evident from desiccation features in the upper parts of mounds. Biostratigraphical evidence dating the events from initial uplift and karstic erosion to covering of the drowned relief topography places the whole sequence within upper Ludlow times.     

太平洋水下海山磷酸盐的成因及形成环境

笔者首次对太平洋与大洋富钴结壳密切相关的海山磷酸盐的成因及形成环境进行了比较深入的研究。研究发现 ,各种产出形态的磷酸盐都不同程度地交代碳酸盐等含钙物质 ,而呈现出交代生物结构、交代凝灰结构、交代角砾状结构及交代填间结构等各种交代结构 ,反映了磷酸盐的交代成因。此外 ,其δ13 C值 (变化于 0 .7‰～ 2 .0‰之间 )也证实其属于交代成因。磷酸盐中Na、Mg、Sr、F、P2 O5含量以及Na/P2 O5、Mg/P2 O5、Sr/P2 O5、F/P2 O5的比值 ,特别是晶格中结构CO2 的含量 (变化于 5 .7%～ 6 .2 %之间 ) ,与形成于氧化环境下的Blakeplateau、ChathamRise、AgulhasBank等处的磷酸盐相近 ,表明调查区磷酸盐亦形成于氧化环境。氧同位素测定结果表明 ,磷酸盐的形成温度为 5 .8～ 14 .8℃ ,平均为 11.5℃ ,显示其形成于正常的海水温度环境。西、中太平洋海山磷酸盐形成环境十分接近的事实暗示 ,西、中太平洋广大区域内的成磷事件存在着时间上和成因上的统一性和相似性。     

西太平洋富钴结壳的分布、组分及元素地球化学

本文以富钴结壳的研究意义,趋势、西太平洋的地区域地质特征为背景,较为详细地阐述了西太平洋富钴结壳的区域分布特征、局部富集规律及其在水下平顶海山上的产出形态;论述了富钴结壳的物质组分,探讨了其含量变化与古海洋环境的关系;研究了富钴结壳的化学成分特征及其在空间上的变化规律,指出西太平洋富钴结壳成矿的良好前景,这对进一步开展富钴结壳成矿规律以及找矿勘探都有重要指导意义。     

Nature of co-bearing ferromanganese crusts of the Magellan Seamounts (Pacific Ocean): Communication 1. Geology, mineralogy, and geochemistry

Communication 1 of the present paper is devoted to various aspects of the hydrogenic ferromanganese crusts in the western and eastern clusters of the Magellan Seamounts in the Pacific. It was revealed that crusts are developed on guyots as a continuous sheet of Fe-Mn minerals on exposures of primary rocks. They commonly make up ring-shaped deposits along the periphery of the summit surface and in the upper sectors of slopes. Thickness of the crust varies from n to ～18 cm and shows irregular variations in separate layers. Irrespective of the geographic position, crusts are composed of four layers—two lower phosphatized (I-1 and I-2) and two upper nonphosphatized (II and III) layers. The crusts differ in terms of structure and texture, but they are sufficiently similar within separate layers (I-1, I-2, and others). The major ore minerals in crusts are commonly represented by poorly crystallized and low-ordered minerals (Fe-vernadite and Mn-feroxyhyte); the subordinate mineral, by the well-crystallized and ordered vernadite. It has been established that heavy and rare metal cations are concentrated extremely irregularly in ore minerals of the crusts, suggesting a pulsating mode of their input during different geological epochs.