Groundwater vulnerability assessment for the karst aquifer of Tanour and Rasoun springs catchment area (NW-Jordan) using COP and EPIK intrinsic methods

Groundwater vulnerability maps were constructed for the surface water catchment area of Tanour and Rasoun spring (north-west of Jordan) using the COP and EPIK intrinsic groundwater vulnerability assessment methods. Tanour and Rasoun springs are the main water resources for domestic purposes within the study area. A detailed geological survey was carried out, and data of lithology, karst features, precipitation, vegetation and soil cover, etc. were gathered from various sources for the catchment area in order to determine the required parameters for each method. ArcGIS software was used for map preparation. In the resulting COP vulnerability map, spatial distribution of groundwater vulnerability is as follows: (1) high (37%), (2) moderate (34.8%), (3) low (20.1%), and (4) very low (8.1%). In the EPIK vulnerability map, only two out of four vulnerability classes characterize the catchment area: very high vulnerable areas (38.4%) and moderately vulnerable areas (61.6%). Due to limited soil thickness, the low vulnerability class is absent within the catchment. The high percentage of very high to moderately vulnerable areas displayed by both the COP and EPIK vulnerability assessment methods are reflected by different pollution events in Tanour and Rasoun karst springs especially during the winter season. The high sensitivity of the aquifer to pollution can be explained by different factors such as: thin or absent soil cover, the high development of the epikarst and karst network, and the lithology and confining conditions of the aquifer.     

基于COP方法的徐州城市规划区内岩溶水脆弱性评价

基于欧洲模式中针对岩溶含水层脆弱性的评价方法—COP法,根据区内实际水文地质条件,建立徐州城市规划区岩溶水脆弱性评价模型。评价结果表明,脆弱性级别高区、脆弱性级别较高区占徐州城市规划区总面积的23.12%、13.73%;脆弱性级别中等区占总面积的7.85%;脆弱性级别较低区和低区分别占总面积的11.57%、43.73%。总体来看,区内岩溶含水层脆弱性整体较低,不容易被污染;脆弱性高区主要分布在基岩裸露区及其周围地区。     

KARSYS: a pragmatic approach to karst hydrogeological system conceptualisation. Assessment of groundwater reserves and resources in Switzerland

An approach is presented for the hydrogeological conceptualisation of karst systems. The KARSYS approach helps hydrogeologists working in karst regions to address in a pragmatic and efficient way the three following questions. (1) Where does the water of a karst spring come from? (2) Through which underground routes does it flow? (3) What are the groundwater reserves and where are they? It is based on a three dimensional model of the carbonate aquifer geometry (3D geological model) coupled to a series of simple fundamental principles of karst hydraulics. This provides, within a limited effort, a consistent hydrogeological conceptual model of karst flow systems within any investigation area. The level of detail can be adjusted according to the targeted degree of confidence. Two examples of its application are presented; the approach was first applied with a low level of detail on a national scale in order to assess the groundwater reserves in karst aquifers in Switzerland, suggesting a groundwater volume of 120 km³. On a regional scale, it was applied with a higher level of detail to some selected karst systems in order to assess their hydropower potential. The KARSYS approach may provide very useful information for water management improvement in karst regions (vulnerability assessment, impact assessment, water supply, flood hazards, landslides, etc.). It leads, in a very cost-effective manner, to a new and highly didactic representation of karst systems as well as to new concepts concerning the delineation of catchment areas in karst regions.     

Dynamics and anthropogenic impacts of multiple karst flow systems in a mountainous area of South China

The Xiangxi River basin, South China, is a steep terrane with well-developed karst features and an important Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer. Meteoric water in this mountainous area features a mean δ¹⁸O elevation gradient of –2.4?‰/km. This gradient was used to estimate mean recharge elevations of 760 m for Shuimoxi (SMX) spring, 1,060 m for Xiangshuidong (XSD) spring, and 1,430 m for drill hole ZK03, indicating multiple flow paths in the Cambrian-Ordovician karst aquifer. Mean residence times of 230 and 320 days and ～2 years were estimated for these features, respectively, using the damped running average model that predicts the isotopic variations in groundwater from those in precipitation. Groundwater in the regional karst flow system has the longest residence time, the highest recharge elevation, the longest flow paths, the lowest addition of anthropogenic components, and the greatest amount of water–rock interaction as indicated by its higher dissolved solids, Mg²⁺ concentrations and Mg/Ca ratios than the springs. In contrast, the local and shallow karst flow systems respond rapidly to recharge events. Artificial tracer tests prove that these shallow karst systems can also quickly transmit anthropogenic contaminants, indicating that they are highly vulnerable to human impacts, which include the enrichment of NO₃ ^–. The intensity of water–rock interaction and groundwater vulnerability are mainly determined by the structure and dynamics of the multiple karst flow systems.     

地下河系统水动态监测网络优化对比分析:以桂林海洋-寨底地下河系统为例

基于我国南方地区岩溶发育极不均匀、水位水质动态变化快的特点,通过对信息熵法和防污性能法所得结果的对比,分析在缺少系列监测资料条件下,利用岩溶水系统防污性能评价结果快速布设地下河系统水动态监测网的可行性及其布设原则。根据防污性能评价结果,结合水循环特征,桂林海洋-寨底地下河系统水动态监测网需由17个监测站组成;采用信息熵法对现有35个监测站进行优化后,认为只需要12个监测站就可组成最优监测网,但这12个监测站点与采用防污性能评价法得到的点位完全重合,且均位于防污性能差的地区。对比分析认为,以地下水系统防污性能评价结果布设地下水动态监测网是可行性的,因为岩溶发育区既是防污性能差的地区,也是地下水动态变化快的地区,能充分反映地下河系统水质水量变化。采用防污性能评价法布设地下水动态监测网时,需要充分认识和了解地下河系统水文地质条件和地下河管道结构特征,且需要遵循以下原则:(1)在岩溶发育相对较弱的系统中部(基本上不存在防污性能差的地区)不设置监测站点;(2)在距离地下河出口较近的岩溶发育区内(即防污性能差的地区)监测站点可由地下河出口替代;(3)对于多支管道系统,岩溶发育相对较弱且距离较短的小型支管道上可以不布设监测站,由支管道与主管道交汇处的监测站代替。     

基于综合方法的地下水污染脆弱性评价——以山东济宁市浅层地下水为例

地下水资源在中国北方对社会经济发展起着不可替代的支撑作用。因此,地下水污染防护十分重要。地下水污染脆弱性评价可以识别出地下水污染高风险区,为地下水资源保护提供一个强有力的决策依据。本文以灾害风险理论为基础提出了地下水污染脆弱性评价模式和指标体系。采用实证权重方法和GIS技术对济宁市北部地下水污染脆弱性进行了评价,并将评价成果应用于济宁市地下水水源保护区划研究。     

岩溶地下水系统防污性能评价方法

岩溶水系统结构复杂,不同类型岩溶区具有不同的岩溶水文地质特征,其地下水系统防污性能评价必须采用不同指标体系的评价模型。本文在对不同类型岩溶区发育特征分析基础上,分别就现有评价模型在不同类型岩溶区的适应性进行了分析,认为:埋藏型岩溶区可采用专门用于承压含水层防污性能评价的PTHQET模型进行评价,而对于补给区局部裸露的浅埋藏性岩溶区建议采用COP模型进行评价;EPIK模型适用于南方裸露岩溶区;北方裸露型岩溶区因表层岩溶带发育程度弱,亦可采用COP模型进行评价。针对覆盖型岩溶的特殊性,在欧洲模型基础上提出了PLEIK评价模型,评价因子包括保护性盖层(P)、土地类型与利用程度(L)、表层岩溶带发育强度(E)、补给类型(I)和岩溶网络发育情况(K);突出了P(保护性盖层)和L(土地利用类型)两个因子的作用,并赋予各因子比欧洲模型更丰富的内涵,同时采用多种可替代参数确定各因子量值,最后给出了防污性能指数计算方法与分级标准。     

Improved groundwater vulnerability mapping for the karstic chalk aquifer of south east England

The Cretaceous age Chalk of south east England forms an important aquifer. Within chalk the storage and transmission of groundwater is enhanced by subsurface karstic weathering. The case study presented in this paper demonstrates that current approaches to assessing groundwater vulnerability to pollution and delineating source protection zones are flawed, as they do not take proper account of the karstic nature of chalk.Improved techniques, based on understanding the geological and geomorphological controls of karst development in chalk, are proposed to overcome the shortcomings of published groundwater vulnerability maps. The results also demonstrate the inadequacies of current groundwater modelling approaches for defining source protection zones. The techniques follow European Commission research recommendations by taking account of recharge, presence of overlying cover deposits, the nature of chalk karst and the way in which it influences the flow of groundwater. The approach described allows for better informed decisions to be made about chalk aquifer management to ensure adequate protection and conservation of groundwater. For example, the published groundwater vulnerability map shows Lambeth Group deposits classified as being a minor aquifer of low groundwater vulnerability in the chosen study area. However, by applying the new techniques, they are classified as having an Aquifer Vulnerability Rating of moderate to very high, when taking the karstic development of the underlying chalk into account.     

Intrinsic vulnerability assessment of Saturnia thermal aquifer by means of three parametric methods: SINTACS,GODS and COP

Three different parametric methods for the evaluation of intrinsic vulnerability to pollution have been applied in a hydrothermal carbonate aquifer located in central-northern Italy and the results obtained were compared with each other. The study area, large, approximately 152 km², lies in an area of the northern Apennines. The investigated aquifer feeds the hot thermal springs of Saturnia. The vulnerability assessment methods used are: SINTACS, GODS and COP. The vulnerability maps obtained were first individually examined, and then they were compared with each other by means of spatial analysis. These maps show similar results for the estimation of the vulnerability just in some areas. SINTACS yields areas potentially vulnerable to pollution along the Albegna River and its major tributaries in the northern part of the study area. The GODS index map reflects the great importance that this method gives to the lithological characteristics of the unsaturated zone in the subdivision of areas with different vulnerability. GODS and COP methods agree in classifying low vulnerability in the most part of central-southern study area, where the aquifer is confined by the Pliocene clay deposits. Based on the conceptual model of groundwater flow developed for the aquifer under investigation, COP seems the most appropriate method among those applied in this work, in particular with regard to the assessment of the vulnerability of the recharge area of thermal groundwater. Located in the northern part of the study area, where karst carbonate formations of the Tuscan Nappe outcrop, this recharge area is classified by the COP method as highly vulnerable to pollution.     

Surface and subsurface environmental degradation in the karst of Apulia (southern Italy)

Karst environments are highly vulnerable to a variety of degradation and pollution problems. Geology (fractured carbonate rocks), morphology (presence of a network of cavities produced by karst processes), and hydrogeology (rapid concentrated flow through fractures and conduits) of karst carbonates strongly favour the movement of contaminants towards the water table. In particular, poor quality of subsurface water can derive from polluting substances flowing at the surface, and/or by direct immission of liquid and solid waste into the water table through the systems of conduits and joints in the rock mass. As a consequence, water quality can deteriorate severely, which implies very high economic and social costs in order to clean the polluted sites and restore the original situation. In some cases, such as when the original karst morphology is changed because of anthropogenic interventions, the variations created in the landscape are not recoverable, and a loss of sites of naturalistic interest has to be registered. High vulnerability of a typical karst region of the Mediterranean area is illustrated in this paper by describing some case studies from Apulia, southern Italy. The Apulia region, where karst processes have had a prominent role in the development of the present landscape, is mostly underlain by intensely karstified limestone. Two cases of pollution due to solid waste into karst cavities (Grave di S. Leonardo in the Gargano Promontory and Grave Pelosello in the Murge plateau), landscape transformation in the Minervino Murge area, and degradation of Gravina Monsignore, a typical karst valley in southeastern Murge, are described in the paper. In two out of four cases, degradation of the sites was discovered thanks to activity from local speleologists, who also acted as promoters for cleaning and safeguarding the polluted sites. These examples underline well the mismanagement of karst territories (in particular, the common practice to dump refuse into sinkholes and caves), the pollution of limestone aquifers, and the effects that such pollution in karst areas might have in terms of the risk to public health.     

海南岛地下潜水系统防污性能评价

海南岛位于我国最南端,地下潜水有松散岩类孔隙潜水、火山岩类裂隙孔洞水、碳酸盐岩类裂隙溶洞水和基岩裂隙水四种基本类型。采用DRASTIC评价方法,对区内地下潜水的污染状况进行了调查评价,并将其防污性能划分为4个等级区：防污性能较好、防污性能中等、防污性能一般、防污性能较差。提出了在定区域内禁止一切不能引起地下水污染的活动,消灭污染源等措施。     

基于程函方程反演的跨孔地震岩溶探测数值模拟研究

岩溶探测对于岩溶发育地区的工程建设有重大意义,跨孔地震波探测是工程勘察有效的地球物理探测技术。本文旨在利用基于程函方程的初至旅行时层析方法,实现对跨孔地震波岩溶探测的反演,并通过多个工况的数值模拟验证其有效性,探索其适用性和局限性。首先,基于波动方程的时域有限差分对跨孔地震岩溶探测进行正演模拟;然后从模拟的地震记录中提取初至旅行时,最后以基于程函方程的初至层析方法反演得到钻孔间的地层速度模型。本文设置了单一溶洞,单一断层,溶洞断层组合及多溶洞组合4种工况,通过数值试验得到了地震记录、旅行时、反演图像、迭代残差等结果。结果表明基于程函方程的初至旅行时层析反演方法对溶洞位置、大小,断层的方位反演较为准确,对于复杂地质条件,多溶洞和裂隙组合反演较为稳定,相互之间干扰很小,能定性区分对溶洞填充物的速度与地层背景波速的高低。但岩溶异常体中的反演速度较真实速度有偏高,纵向分辨率比横向分辨率高。相比溶洞,该方法对断层较不敏感。考虑到基于程函方程的跨孔层析反演在多个岩溶地质体共存的复杂地质条件下依然保持高效和稳定,该方法可以为实际工程提供重要勘察信息。     

Karst morphology and groundwater vulnerability of high alpine karst plateaus

High alpine karst plateaus are recharge areas for major drinking water resources in the Alps and many other regions. Well-established methods for the vulnerability mapping of groundwater to contamination have not been applied to such areas yet. The paper characterises this karst type and shows that two common vulnerability assessment methods (COP and PI) classify most of the areas with high vulnerability classes. In the test site on the Hochschwab plateau (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria), overlying layers are mostly absent, not protective or even enhance point recharge, where they have aquiclude character. The COP method classifies 82% of the area as highly or extremely vulnerable. The resulting maps are reasonable, but do not differentiate vulnerabilities to the extent that the results can be used for protective measures. An extension for the upper end of the vulnerability scale is presented that allows identifying ultra vulnerable areas. The proposed enhancement of the conventional approach points out that infiltration conditions are of key importance for vulnerability. The method accounts for karst genetical and hydrologic processes using qualitative and quantitative properties of karst depressions and sinking streams including parameters calculated from digital elevations models. The method is tested on the Hochschwab plateau where 1.7% of the area is delineated as ultra vulnerable. This differentiation could not be reached by the COP and PI methods. The resulting vulnerability map highlights spots of maximum vulnerability and the combination with a hazard map enables protective measures for a manageable area and number of sites.     

Increase of vulnerability of karst aquifers due to leakage from landfills

Karst aquifers are very vulnerable to various pollution sources. Among these, landfills can contribute contaminants over long periods. Groundwater quality monitoring is required to assess the impact of a landfill leachate on underlying aquifer water or spring discharge. Tracer tests are useful for selecting the location and frequency of sampling. Three landfill sites in karst areas were studied with tracer tests. Additional insight was accomplished by the comparison of the tracer transfer and the breakthrough curves obtained from these tests with the results of two other tracer tests carried out in the same period in karst areas without a landfill. To explain the differences observed, the hypothesis of increased permeability below the landfill due to the presence of inorganic acids in leachates was further tested. The results of detailed, long-term monitoring of contaminated drip water in the Postojna Cave were used to verify the hypothesis. The analysis of the simultaneously increased content of calcium, magnesium, and contaminants in the drip water indicates a direct correlation between limestone dissolution and contaminants. Increased dissolution increases secondary porosity and thus permeability of the vadose zone resulting in higher vulnerability of underlying aquifers and springs in the vicinity landfills.     

Source vulnerability mapping in carbonate (karst) aquifers by extension of the COP method: application to pilot sites

A step from resource to source vulnerability mapping is presented, based on the European COST Action 620 approach for karst groundwater protection. Guidelines on vulnerability assessment of the horizontal groundwater flow path within the karst saturated zone (K factor) are proposed. By integrating this into the previously existing COP method for intrinsic resource vulnerability mapping, adequate source protection can be assessed. The proposed “Karst saturated zone (K) factor” assessment considers groundwater travel time (t subfactor), connection and contribution to the source (r subfactor) and active conduit or fissured network (n subfactor). The extended COP method was applied in two carbonate aquifers in southern Spain with different geological, hydrogeological and climate settings. The results are coherent with previous research results of the studied areas. Moreover, they are consistent with the occasional groundwater contamination detected in one of the springs. On the other hand, an absence of contamination, despite high risk, justifies the lower degrees of vulnerability assigned to the sources surveyed. The source vulnerability maps obtained can thus be used as a basis for the delineation of protection zones.     

城市泥石流风险评价探讨

探讨了城市泥石流风险评价的系统方法,该方法包括泥石流扇形地危险区划、城市易损性分析和城市泥石流风险评价三个主要内容。泥石流堆积扇危险区划是基于数值模拟计算出的泥深和流速分布图进行叠合完成的。以美国高分辨率的“快鸟”卫星影像为数据源,完成了研究区的城市土地覆盖类型遥感解译,在此基础上完成了城市泥石流易损性分析,应用地理信息系统提供的统计和分析工具,完成了研究区泥石流风险评价。该风险区划图可用于指导对泥石流易泛区的不同风险地带的土地利用进行规划和决策,从而达到规避和减轻灾害的目的,也为生活在泥石流危险区的城市居民提供有关灾害风险信息,以作避难和灾害防治的依据。     

地下水污染脆弱性评价方法

地下水污染脆弱性是指污染物自顶部含水层以上某一位置到达地下水系统中某一特定位置的趋势和可能性,进一步分为固有脆弱性和特殊脆弱性。地下水污染脆弱性受地下水流系统和地球化学系统的影响和控制。其主要评价方法有主观分级评价法、统计或基于过程的评价法和综合评价法三大类。中国地下水污染脆弱性评价已有很好的工作基础,评价工作中应以地下水系统为单元,以饮用水井、集中供水水源地、区域含水层系统的补给区为重点保护目标,评价方法应综合区域地下水流系统的过程分析和指数评价方法,并利用已有的区域水质资料进行检验,增强评价结论的科学性和可靠性。     

青木关岩溶槽谷地下水水源地固有脆弱性评价

岩溶地下水脆弱性评价是基于保护岩溶含水层从而有效地管理和利用地下水提出的有效方法和手段。我国西南岩溶区大多数地区缺少应有的地下水保护带,地下水比较容易受到污染。通过采用改进的斯洛文尼亚模式,考虑四个因子:覆盖层(O)、径流特征(C)、降雨条件(P)、岩溶发育程度(K),对重庆市青木关岩溶槽谷地下水水源地的固有脆弱性进行了定量评价。结果表明:流域范围内12.6%为高脆弱性地区;43%为中等脆弱性;44.4%为低脆弱性区域。消水洞及周边100m和消水河及其两边10m,以及岩溶管道发育地区为高脆弱性区。大部分岩溶区为中等脆弱性区。砂岩地区为低脆弱性地区。评价结果与实际吻合。该评价结果为各级决策部门合理规划利用和保护地下水资源提供简单明了的科学依据。该方法对于川东岩溶槽谷地区脆弱性评价有推广价值。      

岩溶地下水脆弱性评价的城镇化因子:以水城盆地为例

岩溶地下水是贵州省六盘水市的重要供水水源,但针对该地区的岩溶地下水脆弱性评价,尤其是城镇化区域的岩溶地下水脆弱性评价尚未见报道.运用改进的径流-覆盖层-降雨（COP）模型,利用RS及GIS技术对水城盆地的土壤类型、土地利用/覆盖类型、降水量数据进行处理,研究了岩溶地下水脆弱性评价的城镇化因子.结果显示,2004~2016年间,研究区地下水固有脆弱性整体呈现出由中脆弱性向低脆弱性转变的趋势,脆弱性降低的区域与城镇化过程中增加的不透水地面区域相一致;表明不透水地面有效地阻碍了地表污染物进入地下,降低了地下水固有脆弱性.本结果为水城盆地岩溶水资源管理提供了重要依据.