Regional abatement action and costs under allocation schemes for emission allowances for achieving low CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>-equivalent concentrations

This paper assesses regional abatement action and costs for two scenarios in which atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stabilise at 450 and 550 ppm CO₂-equivalent. It evaluates two allocation schemes: Multi-Stage and Contraction & Convergence. It was found that abatement costs as percentages of GDP vary significantly by region, with high costs for the Middle East and the former Soviet Union, medium costs for the OECD regions and low costs or even gains for (other) developing regions. In addition to the abatement costs they incur, fossil-fuel-exporting regions are also likely to be affected by losses of coal and oil exports while the former Soviet Union and South America could experience increased bio-energy exports. Especially in the former Soviet Union and Asia, non-CO₂ abatement options are important in the short term in reducing their emissions. Carbon capture and storage, energy efficiency improvements, bio-energy use and the use of renewables dominate reductions in the long term in all regions. It was found that the regional costs are influenced more by the assumed stabilisation level and baseline scenario than by the allocation regimes explored or the assumptions for different technologies.     

Costs and global impacts of black carbon abatement strategies

Abatement of particulate matter has traditionally been driven by health concerns rather than its role in global warming. Here we assess future abatement strategies in terms of how much they reduce the climate impact of black carbon (BC) and organic carbon (OC) from contained combustion. We develop global scenarios which take into account regional differences in climate impact, costs of abatement and ability to pay, as well as both the direct and indirect (snow-albedo) climate impact of BC and OC. To represent the climate impact, we estimate consistent region-specific values of direct and indirect global warming potential (GWP) and global temperature potential (GTP). The indirect GWP has been estimated using a physical approach and includes the effect of change in albedo from BC deposited on snow. The indirect GWP is highest in the Middle East followed by Russia, Europe and North America, while the total GWP is highest in the Middle East, Africa and South Asia. We conclude that prioritizing emission reductions in Asia represents the most cost-efficient global abatement strategy for BC because Asia is (1) responsible for a large share of total emissions, (2) has lower abatement costs compared to Europe and North America and (3) has large health cobenefits from reduced PM₁₀ emissions.     

中国三氟甲烷处置运行补贴政策效果评估

三氟甲烷（HFC-23）是我国排放量最大的氢氟碳化物（HFCs）,受到《联合国气候变化框架公约》和《关于消耗臭氧层物质的蒙特利尔议定书》的管控。2015年我国出台了HFC-23运行补贴政策,支持国内企业开展HFC-23的处置。通过对2014—2018年公开减排数据的汇总分析,发现运行补贴政策的实施有效地激励了企业的减排,受补贴企业HFC-23处置率达98%。2014—2018年累计减排HFC-23约5.20万t,折合6.08亿t CO₂-eq。此外,对照国际公约未来履约义务,建议在运行补贴政策结束后尽快出台明确针对全行业的管控政策,包括定量化减排目标和统一的企业自主监测标准。     

Carbon prices and greenhouse gases abatement from agriculture,forestry and land use in Nepal

The Agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) sector as a whole accounts for more than 80% of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emission in Nepal. This study estimates the GHG emissions from the AFOLU sector in the business as usual (BAU) case during 2010–2050 and identifies the economically attractive countermeasures to abate GHG emissions from the sector at different carbon prices. It also estimates the carbon price elasticity of GHG abatement from the sector. The study finds that enteric fermentation processes in the livestock and emissions from agricultural soils are the two major contributors of GHG emission in AFOLU sector. It identifies no-regret abatement options in the AFOLU sector that could mitigate about 41.5% of the total GHG emission during 2016–2050 in the BAU scenario. There would be a net cumulative carbon sequestration of 16 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO₂e) at $10 per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO₂e) during the period. Carbon price above $75/tCO₂e is not found to be much effective in achieving significant additional reduction in GHG emissions from the AFOLU sector.     

鄂尔多斯市糜黍产量风险评估

糜黍生育期短,具有其他作物少有的耐旱、耐瘠薄、耐风沙、耐盐碱等特性,也是很好晚田备荒作物。以历年减产率指标、减产率变异系数、减产率概率指标和综合风险指数等为评估标准,结合小网格资源推算的方法,分析了鄂尔多斯市糜黍产量风险规律。同时对影响糜黍产量波动的风险成因进行综合评述,结果为气象灾害的频繁发生是引起糜黍产量波动的主要因子之一。     

Marginal abatement cost curves and the quality of emission reductions: a case study on Brazil

Decision makers facing emission-reduction targets need to decide which abatement measures to implement, and in which order. This article investigates how marginal abatement cost (MAC) curves can inform such a decision. We re-analyse a MAC curve built for Brazil by 2030, and show that misinterpreting MAC curves as abatement supply curves can lead to suboptimal strategies. It would lead to (1) under-investment in expensive, long-to-implement and large-potential options, such as clean transportation infrastructure, and (2) over-investment in cheap but limited-potential options such as energy-efficiency improvement in refineries. To mitigate this issue, the article proposes a new graphical representation of MAC curves that explicitly renders the time required to implement each measure.

Policy relevance

In addition to the cost and potential of available options, designing optimal short-term policies requires information on long-term targets (e.g. halving emissions by 2050) and on the speed at which measures can deliver emission reductions. Mitigation policies are thus best investigated in a dynamic framework, building on sector-scale pathways to long-term targets. Climate policies should seek both quantity and quality of abatement, by combining two approaches: a ‘synergy approach’ that focuses on the cheapest mitigation options and maximizes co-benefits, and an ‘urgency approach’ that starts from a long-term objective and works backward to identify actions that need to be implemented early. Accordingly, sector-specific policies may be used (1) to remove implementation barriers on negative- and low-cost options and (2) to ensure short-term targets are met with abatement of sufficient quality. Indeed, such policies can avoid under-investment in the long-to-implement options required to reach long-term targets, which are otherwise difficult to enforce.     

气候对新疆棉花产量的影响分析

新疆是我国近年发展起来的重要产棉区,在中国棉花生产中占有重要地位,尽管目前新疆棉花单产已达到了较高的水平,但生产仍存在潜在的风险。本文即在前人工作的基础上,根据产量统计资料和历年气象数据,划分气候丰歉年型,用相关分析法分析月平均温度、月总日照时数、月总降水量3个气候因子对棉花产量的影响,从而找出影响棉花产量丰歉的气象指标因子,为新疆棉区棉花产量丰歉年预测提供依据。     

Scenarios of methane emission reductions to 2030: abatement costs and co-benefits to ozone air quality and human mortality

Methane emissions contribute to global baseline surface ozone concentrations; therefore reducing methane to address climate change has significant co-benefits for air quality and human health. We analyze the costs of reducing methane from 2005 to 2030, as might be motivated to reduce climate forcing, and the resulting benefits from lower surface ozone to 2060. We construct three plausible scenarios of methane emission reductions, relative to a base scenario, ranging from 75 to 180 Mton CH₄ yr^?1 decreased in 2030. Using compilations of the global availability of methane emission reductions, the least aggressive scenario (A) does not incur any positive marginal costs to 2030, while the most aggressive (C) requires discovery of new methane abatement technologies. The present value of implementation costs for Scenario B are nearly equal to Scenario A, as it implements cost-saving options more quickly, even though it adopts positive cost measures. We estimate the avoided premature human mortalities due to surface ozone decreases by combining transient full-chemistry simulations of these scenarios in a global atmospheric chemical transport model, with concentration-mortality relationships from a short-term epidemiologic study and projected global population. An estimated 38,000 premature mortalities are avoided globally in 2030 under Scenario B. As benefits of methane reduction are positive but costs are negative for Scenario A, it is justified regardless of how avoided mortalities are valued. The incremental benefits of Scenario B also far outweigh the incremental costs. Scenario C has incremental costs that roughly equal benefits, only when technological learning is assumed. Benefits within industrialized nations alone also exceed costs in Scenarios A and B, assuming that the lowest-cost emission reductions, including those in developing nations, are implemented. Monetized co-benefits of methane mitigation for human health are estimated to be $13–17 per ton CO₂eq, with a wider range possible under alternative assumptions. Methane mitigation can be a cost-effective means of long-term and international air quality management, with concurrent benefits for climate.     

我国风力机潜力的估计

本文给出一个计算风能的方法,并计算了全国各地风能密度和利用小时数分析了气候变化规律。在此基础上又利用Justus给出的风力机输出潜力的方法,计算了全国三种不同类型风力机的容量系数并绘制成图。     

2004年昌乐县黄烟减产降质的气象原因分析

从黄烟生产的各个生长时期，分析了2004年昌乐县黄烟生长的气象条件和病毒病大面积发生导致黄烟减产减质的气象因素，并从烟种选育、农业综合治理和蚜虫防治提出防止黄烟病毒病发生的措施，     

中国600个站气温和IPCC模式产品气温的比较

利用中国600个站1961～2000年的月平均气温和IPCC提供的7个全球海气耦合模式(CCC、CCSR、CSIRO、DKRZ、GFDL、HADL、NCAR)在同样时段只考虑03等温室气体的影响的气温产品，进行了对比分析。结果表明：(1)IPCC模式对中国区域气温有一定的模拟能力，考虑总体情况，HADL模式模拟效果最好，依次是模式CCSR、DKRZ、7个模式平均、模式CSIRO、NCAR、CCC、GFDL；(2)低纬度地区比中纬度地区和高纬度地区、中部地区比东部地区和西部地区的模式产品模拟效果更接近于中国600站的实况，另外中纬度地区模拟的效果好于高纬度地区，东部地区模拟效果好于西部地区；(3)中国600个站的气温与IPCC模式的气温产品在中国区域都有上升的趋势，与全球气候变暖的趋势相一致。     

新安大粒樱桃优质高产的气候条件分析

选取新安1959-2008年气温、降水、日照和风速这4个对大粒樱桃种植影响最大的气象因子,分析了大粒樱桃生育期气象因子对其生长的影响,结果表明:大粒樱桃在新安生长发育关键期温度适宜、果实发育期光照充足、花芽分化期水分充足,非常适宜大粒樱桃的种植.新安县气温升高、日照时数增多和平均风速降低的变化趋势,也有利于发展大粒樱桃的种植.对萌芽冻害、花期风害、膨大期涝害等气象灾害,可采取选种、选园、灌水、防霜等防御措施.     

气候变化对小油菜生长发育及产量的影响

以青海省门源县为例,分析小油菜生育期气候变化规律.观测资料表明,小油菜生育期气温升高,气候变暖,4～8月降水量以每10年1.64～20.70 mm的幅度下降,9月降水以每lO年20.16 mm的幅度增加;气候变暖使小油菜播种期提前,成熟期推迟,生育期延长,为提高气候资源利用率和单位面积产量提供了保证;增温对各发育阶段的影响差异明显,除出苗至现蕾间发育进程加快外,其余各发育期生长发育出现迟缓变化;气候产量主要受4、6月和年平均气温及6月降水的影响.     

Agricultural and forestry trade drives large share of tropical deforestation emissions

Deforestation, the second largest source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, is largely driven by expanding forestry and agriculture. However, despite agricultural expansion being increasingly driven by foreign demand, the links between deforestation and foreign demand for agricultural commodities have only been partially mapped. Here we present a pan-tropical quantification of carbon emissions from deforestation associated with the expansion of agriculture and forest plantations, and trace embodied emissions through global supply chains to consumers. We find that in the period 2010–2014, expansion of agriculture and tree plantations into forests across the tropics was associated with net emissions of approximately 2.6 gigatonnes carbon dioxide per year. Cattle and oilseed products account for over half of these emissions. Europe and China are major importers, and for many developed countries, deforestation emissions embodied in imports rival or exceed emissions from domestic agriculture. Depending on the trade model used, 29–39% of deforestation-related emissions were driven by international trade. This is substantially higher than the share of fossil carbon emissions embodied in trade, indicating that efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from land-use change need to consider the role of international demand in driving deforestation. Additionally, we find that deforestation emissions are similar to, or larger than, other emissions in the carbon footprint of key forest-risk commodities. Similarly, deforestation emissions constitute a substantial share (˜15%) of the total carbon footprint of food consumption in EU countries. This highlights the need for consumption-based accounts to include emissions from deforestation, and for the implementation of policy measures that cross these international supply-chains if deforestation emissions are to be effectively reduced.     

T63数值预报产品图形处理系统

用于Ｔ６３数值预报产品输出的图形系统是一个具有资料获取，数据建筑，数值内插，等值线求算，平滑，图形显示和人工干预等多种功能的实时业务系统，该系统用户界面友好，操作简便，产品内容丰富，图形分析质量高，速度快，实时性强，是进行天气预报和数值预报分析的有力工具。     

2003年枣庄市夏玉米减产的气象因素分析

调查分析了2003年枣庄市夏玉米主要生长期的气象条件，结果表明，降水偏多、气温偏低、光照偏少是2003年夏玉米减产的主要原因。     

冬麦北移后生育期及产量构成因素的分析

本文从分析太谷、应县二地在小麦生育期间的气温差异入手,通过对冬麦北移主栽品种“北移一号”在原种植地与北移区二地生育差异的比较分析,表明冬麦北移后生育期表现为“三短两长”的特点,致使“三段生长”的营养生长有效期极大地缩短,营养生长至生殖生长的过渡期也相应缩短,而生殖生长期明显延长,导致了株高降低、节间变短变细变实、强度明显提高,虽然分蘖成穗很少,单株绿色营养面积也很小,但在较高的水肥与合理密植条件下。由于粒重高,经济系数高,仍可获得高产。     

Explaining the stickiness of supply chain relations in the Brazilian soybean trade

The global trade of agricultural commodities has profound social-ecological impacts, from potentially increasing food availability and agricultural efficiency, to displacing local communities, and to incentivizing environmental destruction. Supply chain stickiness, understood as the stability in trading relationships between supply chain actors, moderates the impacts of agricultural commodity production and the possibilities for supply-chain interventions. However, what factors determine stickiness, that is, how and why farmers, traders, food processors, and consumer countries, develop and maintain trading relationships with specific producing regions, remains unclear. Here, we use data on the Brazilian soy supply chain, a mixed methods approach based on extensive actor-based fieldwork, and an explanatory regression model, to identify and explore the factors that influence stickiness between places of production and supply chain actors. We find four groups of factors to be important: economic incentives, institutional enablers and constraints, social and power dimensions, and biophysical and technological conditions. Among the factors we explore, surplus capacity in soy processing infrastructure, (i.e., crushing and storage facilities) is important in increasing stickiness, as is export-oriented production. Conversely, volatility in market demand expressed by farm-gate soy prices and lower land-tenure security are key factors reducing stickiness. Importantly, we uncover heterogeneity and context-specificity in the factors determining stickiness, suggesting tailored supply-chain interventions are beneficial. Understanding supply chain stickiness does not, in itself, provide silver-bullet solutions to stopping deforestation, but it is a crucial prerequisite to understanding the relationships between supply chain actors and producing regions, identifying entry points for supply chain sustainability interventions, assessing the effectiveness of such interventions, forecasting the restructuring of trade flows, and considering sourcing patterns of supply chain actors in territorial planning.