Dynamic changes and transitions of agricultural landscape patterns in mountainous areas: A case study from the hinterland of the Three Gorges Reservoir Area

Analyzing the agricultural landscape patterns in mountainous areas is critical to clarify the dynamic changes and development direction of agricultural landscapes. This also plays a significant role in the rational planning and management of agricultural land. A theoretical framework for agricultural landscape pattern transitions in mountainous areas is proposed to fill the gap of current research with an empirical study in the Caotangxi Watershed, Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA), China. The transition characteristics of agricultural landscape patterns from 2000 to 2018 as represented by sloping farmland, abandoned land, and orchards are analyzed from a holistic-local perspective. The results indicate that the orchards expanded along river valleys, and abandoned land expanded at high elevations, which led to reduced sloping farmland. This phenomenon gives regional landscape differences at the holistic and local levels. Namely, it enhances the region’s holistic landscape diversity but causes fragmentation and aggregation of landscape patches in local areas. The agricultural landscape pattern transitions within the farming range in the study area are manifested primarily in four modes: sloping farmland-orchard conversion type (FOCT), comprehensive conversion type (CCT), partially abandoned type (PAT), and wholly abandoned type (WAT). Each transition mode reveals different development stages of the mountainous agricultural landscape patterns. In general, the agricultural landscape pattern transition is driven by socioeconomic factors in mountainous areas of the TGRA and is bidirectional. This attribute is expressed as the transition from the traditional grain-planting landscape with an even distribution to the eco-economic win-win orchard in valleys and transitions from sloping farmland to abandoned land in high-elevation areas. Overall, the results of this study reveal the uniqueness of agricultural landscape pattern evolutions in China’s mountainous areas in recent decades, which has enlightened the in-depth understandings of rural land use and agricultural ecosystems in mountainous areas of the TGRA, as well as improvements in rural developments and ecological environments.     

贵州喀斯特山区乡村景观生态优化模式研究

根据贵州喀斯特地貌发育广泛,农村生态环境脆弱和经济、社会发展落后的特点,指出贵州喀斯特乡村景观优化的意义,提出喀斯特地区乡村景观优化的"景观异质性与多样性、尺度性、因地制宜、特色突出和持续性原则",并将景观优化与农业生产、旅游开发、山地开发和石漠化治理相结合,设计出了城郊旅游农业模式、丘陵山地农业旅游优化模式、水域渔业旅游模式和小流域石漠化治理生态农业模式4种贵州喀斯特山区乡村景观优化模式.     

A land use/land cover change geospatial cyberinfrastructure to integrate big data and temporal topology

ABSTRACT

Big data have shifted spatial optimization from a purely computational-intensive problem to a data-intensive challenge. This is especially the case for spatiotemporal (ST) land use/land cover change (LUCC) research. In addition to greater variety, for example, from sensing platforms, big data offer datasets at higher spatial and temporal resolutions; these new offerings require new methods to optimize data handling and analysis. We propose a LUCC-based geospatial cyberinfrastructure (GCI) that optimizes big data handling and analysis, in this case with raster data. The GCI provides three levels of optimization. First, we employ spatial optimization with graph-based image segmentation. Second, we propose ST Atom Model to temporally optimize the image segments for LUCC. At last, the first two domain ST optimizations are supported by the computational optimization for big data analysis. The evaluation is conducted using DMTI (DMTI Spatial Inc.) Satellite StreetView imagery datasets acquired for the Greater Montreal area, Canada in 2006, 2009, and 2012 (534 GB, 60 cm spatial resolution, RGB image). Our LUCC-based GCI builds an optimization bridge among LUCC, ST modelling, and big data.     

基于MAS的农户土地利用模型构建与模拟——以陕西省米脂县孟岔村为例

Multi-Agent System(简称MAS)给进行多主体参与的LUCC研究提供一个概念性框架.本文试图通过对多主体决策的模拟,来探讨MAS在微观层面土地利用变化过程中的应用,揭示农户土地利用决策变化的机制.首先,简要说明MAS在土地利用变化模拟中的研究进展和背景:然后,基于B、D、I的决策结构.建立基于MAS的农户土地利用框架;再次,以陕西省米脂县孟岔村为例进行研究:最后.探讨了MAS模型在微观层面模拟LUCC的潜力与不足.研究表明:①利用可清晰地表达决策产生过程的B、D、I决策框架,构建微观个体(农户)的土地利用决策模型:②利用连续函数,构建同类农户间的相互作用模型;③构建市场对农户决策的影响模型.定量分析市场对农户最终土地利用决策的影响,厘定市场、同类农户间相互作用对其土地利用决策的影响:④构建的基于MAS的农户土地利用决策模型为从微观视角研究土地利用变化提供了新的方法.同时.也为进一步探索宏观土地利用变化与微观土地利用决策间的互动机理积累理论与实践的经验.还需要进一步研究和探讨的问题包括:①决策的尺度变化问题,即单个农户决策与群体农户决策之间的转化问题;②探索在更长时间里进行农户土地利用决策研究的方法.以期在大量的土地利用资料与有限时间决策之间找到沟通的桥梁:③进一步探讨不同农户间相互作用的定量方法和模型,充实农户间相互作用的研究.     

Planning restoration in human-modified landscapes: New insights linking different scales

The transformation of tropical ecosystems by humans have resulted in forest loss, which, in turn, have caused negative impacts on biodiversity and the provisioning of ecosystem services. There is an urgent need to plan the restoration of these human-modified landscapes, using methodological approaches that consider key processes occurring at different spatial scales while engage local community participation, offering them the best possibilities of tangible benefits. In this study, was evaluated the landscape spatial pattern and local conservation status of existing forest remnants, showing an analysis of possible restoration scenarios for a human-modified landscape in La Montaña, an indigenous region in southwestern Mexico. Therefore, landscape and local scale approaches were linked to identify specific landscape elements where efforts to improve connectivity must be concentrated. Also, this approach allowed finding a set of species from reference sites that showed the best socioecological characteristics to be used in different restoration strategies. As expected, La Montaña region showed a spatial pattern typical of highly human-modified landscapes, i.e., several small (<21 ha) and irregular forest remnants with strong forest edge effects. Furthermore, these small and irregular forest fragments displayed forest structure, diversity and composition characteristics similar to those communities disturbed by selective harvesting or in an early successional phase. However, about 100 of woody species were found inside the fragments, some with important potential to provide ecosystem services. The landscape connectivity was very low, and an analysis of possible restoration scenarios showed that is equally important to restore the productive areas as well as open forest, to recover up to 47% of landscape connectivity. In this sense, it was proposed a productive restoration strategy to enrich open forests and create biodiversity-friendly habitat in agricultural areas, using species with high socioecological potential. We believe that the same approach could be applied to other highly human-modified tropical landscapes with similar socioecological problems.     

黄河下游沿岸农业景观中蜘蛛对非农生境的响应（英文）

Non-crop habitats have been suggested to impact local biodiversity significantly in agricultural landscapes. However, there have been few studies of the effects of less-focused non-crop habitats(orchard, wetland, pit and ditch) on variation of spider abundance. In this study, spiders in 30 woodlands were captured using pitfall traps in Fengqiu County, China, and the effects of local and landscape variations at different scales(50 m, 100 m, 200 m, 350 m and 500 m) on spider abundance were analysed. The most important variation that influenced spider abundance at the 500 m scale was the less-focused non-crop habitat(LNH) cover, and 10% was an appropriate proportion of LNH cover to sustain high level of spider diversity in the investigated landscape. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analyses revealed that there were significant differences in the spider composition among the high, medium and low LNH coverage. Based on indicator species analysis, different spider species were associated with landscapes with different levels of LNH cover. Lycosidae, which accounted for 48% of the total specimens, preferred woodland habitats neighbouring areas with high LNH cover. Compared with woodland habitats, LNH provided more diverse food sources and habitat to sustain more spider species in the study area. Furthermore, linear elements composed of vegetation, such as pits and ditches, may prevent agricultural intensification by enhancing landscape connectivity and providing habitats for different spiders. Our findings may provide a theoretical basis for biodiversity conservation in agro-ecosystems and top-down control of pests.     

Modeling spatially non-stationary land use/cover change in the lower Connecticut River Basin by combining geographically weighted logistic regression and the CA-Markov model

Simulating land use/cover change (LUCC) and determining its transition rules have been a focus of research for several decades. Previous studies used ordinary logistic regression (OLR) to determine transition rules in cellular automata (CA) modeling of LUCC, which often neglected the spatially non-stationary relationships between driving factors and land use/cover categories. We use an integrated geographically weighted logistic regression (GWLR) CA-Markov method to simulate LUCC from 2001–2011 over 29 towns in the Connecticut River Basin. Results are compared with those obtained from the OLR-CA-Markov method, and the sensitivity of LUCC simulated by the GWLR-CA-Markov method to the spatial non-stationarity-based suitability map is investigated. Analysis of residuals indicates better goodness of fit in model calibration for geographically weighted regression (GWR) than OLR. Coefficients of driving factors indicate that GWLR outperforms OLR in depicting the local suitability of land use/cover categories. Kappa statistics of the simulated maps indicate high agreement with observed land use/cover for both OLR-CA-Markov and GWLR-CA-Markov methods. Similarity in simulation accuracy between the methods suggests that the sensitivity of simulated LUCC to suitability inputs is low with respect to spatial non-stationarity. Therefore, this study provides critical insight on the role of spatial non-stationarity throughout the process of LUCC simulation.     

Exploring the impacts of future tourism development on land use/cover changes

Land use/cover changes (LUCC) are central to tourism because land is used in multiple ways as a resource for tourism-focused activities. Tourism is essentially a geographical phenomenon, encompassing the movement and flow of people (seen as the demand side) and spatial distribution patterns relating to land use consumption (seen as the supply side). However, the impacts of tourism on LUCC are difficult to track and monitor. Contributing factors of this problem include a lack of empirical studies, shortage of micro-level LUCC datasets, and scarce methodological frameworks which can be used for assessments. This paper aims to provide a LUCC modelling approach in order to explore the impacts of tourism development on built-up areas. We developed a Cellular automata model (CA) which integrates Markovian transition probabilities and logistic regression transition suitability maps. LUCC rules for tourism development are framed within the national land use policy guidelines for the development of new tourism accommodation establishments (TAE). This primarily takes into consideration land cover compatibility and the proposed development's proximity to the coastline.Three scenarios were established to explore the impacts of tourism development in LUCC for the year 2020 in a Portuguese coastal region: business as usual (BAU); tourism trends (TOUR); and natural restrictions (NATR). TOUR results indicate that the tourism and urban land use/cover growth is higher and focuses heavily on the coastal region (within 5,000 m) when compared to the other scenarios. The overall results for BAU and NATR show a general convergence with the land use policy guidelines in terms of tourism nucleation and new TAE distance to the coastline.     

三峡库区腹地山区农业景观格局动态变化与转型

山区农业景观格局动态分析有利于厘清农业景观发展的动态轨迹与方向,对农地用途的合理规划和管理有重要意义。本文提出了山区农业景观格局转型理论框架,并在三峡库区草堂溪流域进行了实证研究,从整体—微观的角度解析2000—2018年期间,以坡耕地、撂荒地和果园为代表的农业景观格局转型特征。研究发现：① 果园沿河谷的扩张和撂荒地在较高海拔处的扩张明显压缩了坡耕地的空间,这导致区域景观多样性的整体增强,而在局部地形上的差异明显,斑块破碎但聚集度增强;② 研究区农户耕种范围内的农业景观格局转型主要表现为耕—果转换型、综合型、部分撂荒型和撂荒型4种模式,各模式揭示了山区农业景观格局的不同发展阶段;③ 在以社会经济因素为主的驱动下,三峡库区山区的农业景观格局转型具有双向性,表现为以传统均衡分布的纯粮种植景观向河谷生态经济双赢的经果林景观和较高海拔的撂荒地转变。研究结果揭示了近年来中国山区农业景观格局演变的独特性,对库区山区农村土地利用和农业生态系统的深入认识以及库区乡村发展和生态环境的改善均有启示意义。     

The look of agricultural landscapes – How do non-crop landscape elements contribute to visual preferences in a large-scale agricultural landscape?

ABSTRACT

Efficiency in agricultural food production has long been in focus and this has affected the spatial structure of agricultural land use. One outcome has been extensive criticism based on a wide range of negative consequences, such as for biodiversity, accessibility, cultural heritage, and aesthetics. In line with the European Landscape Convention (ELC), management of people’s everyday landscapes is important. In Norway, agricultural landscapes are the ‘everyday landscape’ for a large proportion of the population. The aim of the article is to contribute to the understanding of landscape changes perceived as positive or negative by the inhabitants. The authors focused on grain-crop dominated landscapes and the impact of smaller non-crop elements on people’s landscape preferences. They administered a photo-based questionnaire using manipulated photos to assess preferences for different agricultural landscapes. Additionally, people’s perceived objectives for the agricultural sector and agriculture’s primary functions were assessed. The results documented positive perceptions of added landscape elements and that people were both aware of and agreed on the multifunctional role of agriculture. The authors conclude that if the public’s preferences are to be taken into consideration, such as during policymaking, it is important to maintain various landscape elements in the large-scale grain field landscapes of Norway.     

滇西北山区土地持续利用动态评价与分析--以云南省永胜县为例

以云南省永胜县为例,应用景观生态学原理,构建土地持续利用的时空耦合的综合评价指标体系,定量评价全县1996年、1999年和2001年间的土地利用可持续性动态,并构建指标贡献度与指标障碍度,定量表征各指标的相对作用强度。研究结果表明,研究时段内全县各乡镇土地利用可持续性整体均较低,相对差异大而稳定;区域土地利用系统在1999年前后发生了较大变化,偏离了土地持续利用目标;对全县各乡镇土地利用可持续性起重要贡献作用的因素主要是人口密度与土地利用程度指数,景观多样性与复种指数次之;主要障碍因素则是地均工农业总产值、粮食作物单产、景观破碎度,油料作物单产、单位面积耕地化肥使用量次之。     

Comparing historical and contemporary maps - a methodological framework for a cartographic map comparison applied to Swiss maps

Topographic maps are powerful tools for the purpose of identifying land use and cover change (LUCC) as they are among the most reliable representations of past landscapes for the time prior to the existence of aerial photography. In light of the increased availability of historical maps, we argue that there is a need for a standardized process to assess map comparability in a systematic way in order to avoid, or at least minimize, the detection of spurious landscape changes due to incompatible map series. A full understanding of map quality, background and error distributions is fundamental to attain reliable LUCC results. The conceptual framework presented in this study considers the context, distortion and cartographic generalization of topographic maps. Furthermore, it includes an approach to homogenize the level of generalization of landscape elements (e.g. forests) from maps with different scales. To demonstrate its application, we assessed the comparability of seven topographic maps from Canton Zurich covering a time span of 336 years (1664–2000). Overall, for the maps of Canton Zurich, a wall-to-wall comparison of forest cover based on the topographic maps presented here can be problematic for the oldest map from 1664. Based on the results, a wall-to-wall comparison with the later maps is not recommended, due to its substantial distortion. Yet, after re-generalization of natural landscape elements, such as forests, a comparison based on landscape indices is possible, even for the oldest map. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that maps from the mid-19^th century onward possess an acceptable level of accuracy. This framework can be applied to a wide range of maps at regional, national, or global levels, providing the opportunity to look at land cover history over multiple centuries.     

Agent-based model of land system: Theory,application and modelling framework

Land change science has become an interdisciplinary research direction for understanding human-natural coupling systems. As a process-oriented modelling approach, agent based model(ABM) plays an important role in revealing the driving forces of land change and understanding the process of land change. This paper starts from three aspects: The theory, application and modeling framework of ABM. First, we summarize the theoretical basis of ABM and introduce some related concepts. Then we expound the application and development of ABM in both urban land systems and agricultural land systems, and further introduce the case study of a model on Grain for Green Program in Hengduan Mountainous region, China. On the basis of combing the ABM modeling protocol, we propose the land system ABM modeling framework and process from the perspective of agents. In terms of urban land use, ABM research initially focused on the study of urban expansion based on landscape, then expanded to issues like urban residential separation, planning and zoning, ecological functions, etc. In terms of agricultural land use, ABM application presents more diverse and individualized features. Research topics include farmers' behavior, farmers' decision-making, planting systems, agricultural policy, etc. Compared to traditional models, ABM is more complex and difficult to generalize beyond specific context since it relies on local knowledge and data. However, due to its unique bottom-up model structure, ABM has an indispensable role in exploring the driving forces of land change and also the impact of human behavior on the environment.     

Assessing farmland dynamics and land degradation on Sahelian landscapes using remotely sensed and socioeconomic data

Through the integration of SPOT HRV, biophysical and socioeconomic information, the study identified population carrying capacities and their vulnerability to land degradation. Land use intensification on the landscapes was quantified into expansion, early and late phases based on the Ruthenberg index calculated using a biennial series of SPOT images for the period 1986-96. Subsequently, farmland dynamic on different landscapes was calculated while observed patterns were linked with agricultural intensification and population carrying capacity. Results show a pattern of agricultural land degradation due to increasing pressure of population and agricultural intensification within a system characterised by little or no use of inputs. Fifty-six percent of the study area supports a population density higher than the carrying capacity (≤ 15 pers/km^-2). Sixty-three percent of the study area is under early to late phases of agricultural intensification. Between 1986-96, cultivation declined 2-3% annually on landscapes with Low risk of degradation but increased by 1-2% on those with Average/Extreme risks. This emphasises the process of land abandonment as farmers move on to cultivating marginal lands despite above normal seasonal rainfalls observed during most of the period. By 1996, cultivation tended to include fields much farther away from the vicinity of villages, compared with 10 years earlier. Furthermore, by 1996, farmlands in the zones of late intensification declined from 12 to 4% and increased from 6 to 11% in the zone under the expansion phase. Indicating that by 1996 substantial amount of the land area required increasing lengths of fallowing. The spatial GIS modelling approach allowed not only identification of zones but synthesis of the observed pattern of landscape degradation. The paper highlights the need for combining remote sensing, biophysical and socio-economic data in environmental degradation studies in developing countries with their poor data availability. The role of developing countries scientists is stressed in taking the forefront to tackle environmental problems, which affect their region. The paper calls for increased co-operation between these scientists and regional and international data providers to overcome data availability problems and pave the way for better local and regional studies on environmental degradation.     

土地系统多主体模型的理论与应用

土地变化科学是理解人类—自然耦合系统的交叉学科研究方向。多主体模型（ABM）作为过程导向模型,对揭示土地变化驱动力,理解土地变化过程有重要作用。本文从理论、应用与建模框架三方面出发,总结了ABM理论基础和相关概念;阐述了ABM在城市和农业土地系统两方面的应用与发展,进一步介绍了横断山区退耕还林ABM研究案例;在梳理ABM建模协议的基础上,提出了主体视角的土地系统ABM建模框架和实施流程。在城市土地利用方面,ABM研究从最初基于景观研究城市扩张,到研究城市内部居住分隔,规划分区,生态功能等多方面;在农业土地利用方面,ABM应用则呈现出更加多样化和个性化的特征,包括农民行为、农户决策、种植系统、农业政策等。相比于传统模型,ABM因其依靠本地知识与数据而使得其构建更为复杂,且不易推广;但因其独特的自下而上模型构架,在探究土地变化驱动力、刻画人类行为对自然环境影响等方面具有不可或缺的作用。     

地质公园硬质景观设计的地域性理念与实践——以新疆温宿地质公园的标志碑设计为例

地质公园已经成为重要的旅游资源,其景观设计已经成为理论研究和实践应用的重要课题。为区别于地质公园中的地质和植物等自然景观,将地质公园中的所有人工景观统称为硬质景观。硬质景观作为连接旅游者与所在地域环境的重要纽带,是地质公园景观体系的重要组成部分,是地域特色、地域形象的载体和地域文化的传播媒介。针对目前我国地质公园硬质景观建设中忽视地域特色差异性,呈现出千篇一律、生搬硬套的问题,借鉴《园冶》景观设计的“境域联想、融题于形、物为人用”等理念,从地域性影响要素、地域性设计理念和硬质景观载体解构三个方面,构建了地质公园硬质景观设计的地域性理念框架。地质公园所在地域的地脉、文脉和技术环境通过科普内容、景观符号以及以人为本等方式融入到硬质景观的设计中,并以硬质景观载体展现出来。地脉确立硬质景观的科学性,决定着硬质景观的科普内涵;文脉则通过符号化的要素传递历史文化内涵;技术环境从技术手段上凸显不同地理环境下的人性关怀。地质公园硬质景观的地域性美学表达载体是抽象与具象的统一,更是多维度的表现形式。通过对地质公园硬质景观的解构提炼出“尺度、色彩、质感”三种载体,以彰显地域性差异,杜绝在区域差异很大的公园之内,出现外形、色彩、质地基本一样的景观形态,强化了公园建设的独特性与价值体验。以新疆温宿地质公园的界碑牌示系统设计为实证,展示了地质公园硬质景观设计的地域性理念的应用价值,为地质公园硬质景观特色化设计打开了一扇窗口。     

Collaborative landscape research in Reunion Island: Using spatial modelling and simulation to support territorial foresight and urban planning

This paper reflects on collaborative landscape research conducted in Reunion Island, an outermost region of the European Union. On this 2,500 km² tropical island also considered a major international biodiversity hotspot, land-use planners must address important challenges, especially growing population densities and urban sprawl that cause important pressure on agricultural land and natural ecosystems. While progress has been made towards land-use zoning and planning at the island scale, entrenched interests and a lack of communication between the agricultural, urban and environmental sectors continue to hinder the design and implementation of integrated land-use plans at the local level. This paper presents an approach to territorial foresight where urban development scenarios and spatial models were co-constructed with a collective of institutional actors in order to facilitate dialogue on future urbanization patterns and impacts on landscapes. It describes how spatially explicit models and simulations of urban development, first used as demonstrators, have raised individual interests and expectations and facilitated the structuring of a collaborative research network. Models and scenarios were then questioned, redesigned collectively and used as boundary objects to facilitate a shift away from statistical and sectorial readings towards more territorialized and integrated perspectives. Analysing inputs, reactions and feedback from the actors involved in the research, this paper discusses the role and potential value of landscape modelling and simulation in mediating debates among planning stakeholders and creating social learning situations.     

Modeling mobile individuals in dynamic landscapes

Geographic modeling systems should support simulation of mobile individuals in dynamic landscapes. In modeling a small population (e.g. an endangered species), it is important to keep track of individuals over time and space, interactions between individuals, landscape processes over time and space, interactions among landscape processes, and interactions of individuals with landscape processes. An object-oriented simulation modeling system was designed to meet these requirements. A prototype demonstrates the capabilities with hypothetical animals in static and dynamic landscapes.     

基于土地利用/覆被变化表征的现代绿洲演变过程——以天山北坡三工河流域为例

本文以天山北坡三工河流域为例,利用1958年、1968年和1978年3期航片、1987年彩红外航片、1998年Landsat TM、2004年SPOT 5和2014年Landsat OLI影像,构建绿洲及其外围荒漠7期土地利用/土地覆被数据集,综合分析1950s屯垦戍边以来现代绿洲演变和外围荒漠植物群落变化。结果表明：①1950年以来,屯垦戍边使位于三工河冲洪积扇中下部的老绿洲不断向冲积平原扩张,老绿洲外围以柽柳和梭梭为建群种的土质荒漠景观不断转变为新绿洲,绿洲面积增加了4倍多。其中1958-1968年和2000s以来是绿洲变化最为显著的两个阶段,这两个阶段分别对应了农业用地和建设用地增幅最大的时期。② 三工河流域的现代绿洲演变过程中存在“地方管辖区”和“兵团农场区”两种基本管理模式,也正是这两种模式相互渗透、相互交叉融合,共同推动了现代绿洲演变。③三工河流域1950s-2004年现代绿洲演变具有干旱区绿洲演变的普遍特征,但2004年以后的演变仅适用于有较大规模跨流域调水或新增水源的绿洲演变情形。现代绿洲的扩张以荒漠植被的砍伐和破坏为代价,导致绿洲外围植物群落结构发生了显著的变化,这使得绿洲外围荒漠生态系统的保护愈加困难     

How landscapes change: Integration of spatial patterns and human processes in temperate landscapes of southern Chile

A comprehensive understanding of the patterns that occur as human processes transform landscapes is necessary for sustainable development. We provide new evidence on how landscapes change by analysing the spatial patterns of human processes in three forest landscapes in southern Chile at different states of alteration (40%-90% of old-growth forest loss). Three phases of landscape alteration are distinguished. In Phase I (40%-65% of old-growth forest loss), deforestation rates are < 1% yr⁻¹, forests are increasingly degraded, and clearance for pastureland is concentrated on deeper soils. In Phase II (65%-80%), deforestation reaches its maximum rate of 1-1.5% yr⁻¹, with clearance for pastureland being the main human process, creating a landscape dominated by disturbed forest and shrubland. In this phase, clearance for pastureland is the primary driver of change, with pastures expanding onto poorer soils in more spatially aggregated patterns. In Phase III (80%-90%), deforestation rates are again relatively low (<1% yr⁻¹) and forest regrowth is observed on marginal lands. During this phase, clearance is the dominant process and pastureland is the main land cover. As a forest landscape is transformed, the extent and intensity of human processes vary according to the existing state of landscape alteration, resulting in distinctive landscape patterns in each phase. A relationship between spatial patterns of land cover and human-related processes has been identified along the gradient of landscape alteration. This integrative framework can potentially provide insights into the patterns and processes of dynamic landscapes in other areas subjected to intensifying human use.