Sustainable shellfish aquaculture in Saldanha Bay,South Africa

The carrying capacity for bivalve shellfish culture in Saldanha Bay, South Africa, was analysed through the application of the well-tested EcoWin ecological model, in order to simulate key ecosystem variables. The model was set up using: (i) oceanographic and water-quality data collected from Saldanha Bay, and (ii) culture-practice information provided by local shellfish farmers. EcoWin successfully reproduced key ecological processes, simulating an annual mean phytoplankton biomass of 7.5 µg Chl a l^–1 and an annual harvested shellfish biomass of about 3 000 tonnes (t) y^–1, in good agreement with reported yield. The maximum annual carrying capacity of Small Bay was estimated as 20 000 t live weight (LW) of oysters Crassostrea gigas, or alternatively 5 100 t LW of mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis, and for Big Bay as 100 000 t LW of oysters. Two production scenarios were investigated for Small Bay: a production of 4 000 t LW y^–1 of mussels, and the most profitable scenario for oysters of 19 700 t LW y^–1. The main conclusions of this work are: (i) in 2015–2016, both Small Bay and Big Bay were below their maximum production capacity; (ii) the current production of shellfish potentially removes 85% of the human nitrogen inputs; (iii) a maximum-production scenario in both Big Bay and Small Bay would result in phytoplankton depletion in the farmed area; (iv) increasing the production intensity in Big Bay would probably impact the existing cultures in Small Bay; and (v) the production in Small Bay could be increased, resulting in higher income for farmers.     

Saldanha Bay,South Africa II: estimating bay productivity

Saldanha Bay is a narrow-mouth bay on the west coast of South Africa linked to the southern Benguela upwelling system. Bay productivity was investigated by use of the conventional light-and-dark bottle oxygen method, and, for comparison, through assimilation of the stable isotope tracer ¹³C. Gross community production GCP and net community production NCP, as determined from the oxygen method, were respectively 2.6 and 2.4 times higher than estimates determined from the stable isotope method. Chlorophyll a (Chl a) concentrations increased with the onset of spring and well-defined subsurface maxima developed in association with increasingly stratified conditions (mean water column Chl a concentrations ranged from 5.4 to 31.5?mg m^?3 [mean 15.5?mg m^?3; SD 7.6]). A sharp decline in photosynthetic rates P* (GCP normalised to Chl a concentration) with depth was attributed to light limitation, as demonstrated by the high vertical attenuation coefficients for downward irradiance K_d, which varied from 0.29 to 0.70?m^?1 (mean 0.48?m^?1; SD 0.12). Productivity maxima were consequently near-surface despite the presence of deeper subsurface biomass maxima. The community compensation depth Z_cc, where gross community production balances respiratory carbon loss for the entire community, ranged from 2.9 to 9.2?m (mean 5.8?m; SD 2.2), and was typically shallower than the 1% light depth for PAR (photosynthetically available radiation), Z1%PAR, which is traditionally assumed to be the depth of the euphotic zone and which ranged from 6.6 to 15.9?m (mean 9?m; SD 2.6). Autotrophic communities, where organic matter is produced in excess of respiratory demand, were confined on average to the upper 5.8?m of the water column, and often excluded the bulk of the phytoplankton community, where light limitation is considered to lead to heterotrophic community metabolism. Estimates of integrated water column productivity ranged from 0.84 to 8.46?g C m–2 d^?1 (mean 3.35?g C m^?2 d^?1; SD 1.9).     

Is there a relationship between fisheries and farming? Interdependence of fisheries,animal production and aquaculture

Fishmeal is a critically important feed ingredient for use in animal (e.g., poultry and pigs) and aquaculture production (e.g., salmon, trout and shrimp). There is great concern that increasing demand for fishmeal will place stress on the world's pelagic fisheries and may undermine the sustainability of aquaculture systems. Our research shows that after 1998 the fishmeal sector changed. The change has increased costs for animal and fish producers, which seems to have acted as a stimulus for innovation. The results have considerable implications for the management and health of pelagic fisheries.     

Distribution characteristics of size-fractionated chlorophyll a, primary production and new production in the Laizhou Bay, July 1997

The distributions of chlorophyll a concentration, primary production and new productionwere observed in the Laizhou Bay of the Bohai Sea in both spring and neap tides during July 1997. The results showed that there were marked features of spatial zonation in the surveyed area, due to the differences between the geographic environment and the hydrological conditions. Chlorophyll a, primary production and new production were all higher in spring tides than that in neap tides in the Laizhou Bay. The highest values of these parameters were encountered in the central regions of the bay. At most stations, chlorophyll a concentrations at the bottom were higher than that at the surface. The results of size-fractionated chlorophyll a and primary production showed that contributions of nano-combining pi-coplankton ( > 20 μm) to total chlorophyll a and primary production were dominant in phytoplankton community biomass and production of the Laizhou Bay. The environmental factors, primary production and new product     

Saldanha Bay,South Africa I: the use of ocean colour remote sensing to assess phytoplankton biomass

The efficacy of ocean colour remote sensing in assessing the variability of phytoplankton biomass within Saldanha Bay is examined. Satellite estimates of chlorophyll a (Chl a) were obtained using the maximum peak-height (MPH) algorithm on full-resolution (300?m) data from the Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS). Subsurface Chl a maxima often occur within Saldanha Bay below the mean detection depth of the satellite (1.5?m) during periods of thermal stratification. Consequently, the MPH product was poorly correlated to in situ data from 4?m depth (r² and average relative percentage difference [RPD] of 0.094 and 53% respectively); however, the coefficient of determination was much improved if limited to in situ data collected under conditions of mixing (r² and RPD of 0.869 and 89%, respectively). Composites of monthly MPH Chl a data reveal mean concentrations consistent with in situ seasonal trends of phytoplankton biomass, confirming the capability of the MPH algorithm to qualitatively resolve surface Chl a distribution within the bay.     

A note on wind-driven replacement flow of the bottom layer in Saldanha Bay,South Africa: implications for pollution

The unexpected effect of a synoptic-scale event (passage of a cold front) on the advection of water across the mouth of Small Bay, Saldanha Bay, is recorded. From a current-meter record, it is shown how the strength (> 15m·s^?1) and direction (NNE) of the wind relative to the mouth set up a stratified shear flow whereby the out-flowing surface water is replaced by in-flowing bottom water. The potential environmental implications for this type of event are discussed.     

When plenty is not enough: an assessment of the white stumpnose (Rhabdosargus globiceps) fishery of Saldanha Bay,South Africa

White stumpnose Rhabdosargus globiceps is the main target of the linefishery in Saldanha Bay. Increased fishing pressure over the last three decades, particularly by the recreational sector, has led to concerns regarding sustainability of the local white stumpnose stock. The fishery was exceptionally productive between 2006 and 2008, with an estimated annual catch of 141.2 tonnes (t). Only 3% of boat outings surveyed were commercial boats targeting white stumpnose, yet this sector accounted for 39.3 t (31%) of the average annual catch. The recreational boat sector accounted for most of the catch (70.0 t), and the recreational shore sector the least (31.9 t). Commercial boat catch per unit effort (CPUE; 3.7 fish angler^–1 h^–1) was more than 10 times that of recreational boats (0.3 fish angler^–1 h^–1). White stumpnose catch length-frequency differed significantly (p < 0.01) between the fishing sectors, with the commercial sector retaining larger fish (34.7 cm [SD 5.9]) than the recreational boat (33.9 cm [SD 5.9]) and shore (30.4 cm [SD 5.8]) sectors. A decline in commercial CPUE (2000–2015) of approximately 40% and a concomitant severe decline (>95%) in survey data for juvenile white stumpnose CPUE (2007–2016) indicate that the current rate of exploitation is not sustainable. Recovery of the white stumpnose stock will require a decrease in fishing mortality. Possible management regulations include sector-specific effort limitations, extending the ‘no take’ marine protected area, reducing the recreational-sector bag limit to 5 fish person^–1 day^–1, implementing a commercial-sector bag limit, and increasing the minimum size limit to 30 cm TL.     

Changes in the epibenthos of Saldanha Bay,South Africa,between the 1960s and 2001: an analysis based on dredge samples

Saldanha Bay, which lies on the south-west coast of South Africa, has undergone major development over the past 30 years, including breakwater and harbour construction, harbour extension, dredging, mining, fishing, fish processing and mussel culture. This study examines whether the benthic macrofaunal communities in the bay have been altered over this period. Twelve stations that had been sampled in the 1960s, prior to harbour construction, were re-sampled in 2001 (40 years later) with a surface dredge. Species abundances were coded from 1 (present) to 5 (abundant) to make the two sets of samples comparable. The benthic communities before harbour development were significantly different from those in 2001 (ANOSIM, p < 0.001). Increases in the abundances of the whelk Nassarius speciosus and the crab Hymenosoma orbiculare were mainly responsible for these differences. Two main benthic communities were recognised in the 1960s and, at that stage, covered large extents of the bay, whereas in 2001 the communities were divided into distinct 'Small Bay' and 'Big Bay' groups, reflecting the division of the bay into two areas by the development of a harbour wall. Although natural fluctuations may account for some of these changes, it is more likely that the considerable anthropogenic activities within Saldanha Bay, which are known to have altered physical conditions, have led to the changes observed in the benthic communities.     

Phytoplankton ecology of a barrier island estuary: Great South Bay,New York

The phytoplankton ecology of Great South Bay, New York, was studied over a 1-year period. The study area, a large barrier island estuary (coastal lagoon with estuarine circulation), was characterized by high levels of inorganic nutrients, high turbidity and a shallow euphotic zone (<2 m). Net annual primary production by phytoplankton was high—450 g C m^?2 year^?1—and accounted for approximately 85% of the total ecosystem primary production. Chlorophyll a-specific productivity was dependent on mean photic zone light intensity in areas of the bay <1 m in depth from September 1979 through June 1980; 65–95% of the total light extinction in those areas was attibutable to suspended solids. Nitrogenous nutrient concentration did not limit phytoplankton productivity. Diatom and dinoflagellate cell densities varied greatly over time, while cryptomonad and chlorophyte species were abundant throughtout the year. Chlorophytes of 2–4 μm (‘small forms’) were numerically dominant, and contributed approximately half of the total phytoplankton biomass. Dilution of bay water by intruding ocean water appeared to control the spatial distribution of chlorophyll a on the south side of the bay; in other areas, growth appeared to exceed the rate of dilution by flushing. Waters entrained in eelgrass beds were significantly higher in salinity and mean photic zone light intensity, and had lower phytoplankton standing stock and depth-integrated primary production than control areas; waters in the sediment plume of active clamdigging boats were statistically similar to control areas with respect to water quality and phytoplankton community characteristics.     

Introduced Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas in South Africa: demographic change,genetic diversity and body condition

Successful aquaculture species are often chosen for their fast growth rates and fecundity, which are also characteristics of invasive species. The Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, which constitutes 80% of global oyster trade, has been confirmed as invasive in 17 of the 66 countries where it is cultured. The single study of its status in South Africa reported populations in six South Coast estuaries in 2001, dropping to three sites in 2003. We resurveyed these estuaries, visited others in the Eastern and Western Cape provinces, and sampled oyster tissue for molecular analyses of population structure. Pacific oysters have disappeared from Knysna and, following our collections, possibly also from the GouKou Estuary. Between 2003 and 2012, the Breede Estuary population decreased by 87%, from an estimated 184 206 to 23 760 individuals. Within this estuary, oysters 12 km upriver had denser shells and higher body condition indices than did those within 1.4 km of the river mouth, presumably reflecting higher availability of suspended organic matter. However, low salinity over most of the species’ range in the estuary probably inhibits recruitment. New populations of Pacific oysters in the Swartkops and Kaaimans estuaries urgently require monitoring and eradication. Haplotype (h) and nucleotide (π) diversities across all oyster populations sampled (h = 0.2300 [SD 0.0595], π = 0.0006 [SD 0.0007]) were lower than those of co-occurring indigenous Cape rock oysters Striostrea margaritacea from the GouKou and Breede estuaries (h = 0.9076 [SD 0.0386], π = 0.00589 [SD 0.00347]). Pacific oysters either have been introduced to South African estuaries infrequently, or have experienced genetic bottlenecks following river floods or human exploitation, or both. Populations growing outside culture infrastructure are restricted to estuaries in the Eastern and Western Cape provinces, with no evidence of occurrence in fully marine shelf environments. Given the species’ considerable socio-economic importance, estuarine and coastal surveillance coupled with aquaculture zoning are required to integrate biodiversity and food security considerations.     

大亚湾养殖区沉积物–水界面氮磷的释放通量及其在水体中的扩散迁移

为了更好地跟踪水产养殖活动对海湾水环境的影响,于2011年10月采集了3个具有代表性的大亚湾海域水产养殖区的水样和底泥样品,研究了底泥含水率、孔隙率、密度以及孔隙水中的氨氮和可溶活性磷酸盐的垂直分布。采用经典的Fick定律,计算了氮和磷在沉积物-水界面的释放速率和年释放量。基于环境水力学理论,应用水平二维数学模型,计算了氮和磷在沉积物-水界面释放之后在海水中的扩散迁移时空分布。结果表明,澳头、深水港、虎头门采样点沉积物-水界面的氨氮年释放量分别为13.5、5.2、0.56t·a-1,可溶活性磷酸盐的释放量分别为0.34、0.03、0.02t·a-1,使水产养殖区域沉积物成为极具潜力的污染内源。释放到海水中的氮和磷受潮流、风、水深的影响,其扩散迁移范围呈长条形带状分布。每个养殖区域的污染带长度约为1km,横向宽度约为50m。该区域的海水极易呈富营养化状态。     

Settlement patterns,size and growth of puerulus and juvenile rock lobster Jasus lalandii at an oyster farm in Saldanha Bay,South Africa

Trends in the abundance, size and growth of newly settled pueruli and early juveniles of the rock lobster Jasus lalandii were determined from samples obtained from mesh bags used for oyster mariculture in Saldanha Bay, South Africa. Totals of 3 842 lobster pueruli and 10 158 juveniles were captured between August 2005 and June 2006, and distinct puerulus settlement events were identified in November and January. Juveniles also peaked during these months as well as in March. The size of newly settled pueruli increased significantly between October and March. The carapace length (CL) of pueruli and juveniles overlapped between 8.5 mm (smallest juvenile) and 10.4 mm (largest puerulus), and 50% of pueruli moulted into juveniles by 9.5–9.6 mm CL. There was a size progression in juveniles, with larger individuals in February and March reflecting an accumulation of juveniles from the earlier settlement events. The estimated growth increment from puerulus to first juvenile instar was 0.5–1.5 mm (4.9–16.1%), increasing to 1.4–2.5 mm (14.4–23.3%) for the second instar. Recruitment of J. lalandii pueruli occurred during periods when strong southerly winds prevailed, which results in a general offshore movement of surface waters along the West Coast and upwelling of cold nutrient-rich bottom waters. However, specific settlement events appeared to coincide with a change in wind direction, reduction in upwelling strength and increase in surface water temperatures, implying that larvae may take advantage of landward movements of surface waters during downwelling, or reversal of upwelling, to return them to shallow coastal waters.     

Thermal Stratification in Saldanha Bay (South Africa) and Subtidal, Density-driven Exchange with the Coastal Waters of the Benguela Upwelling System

A study was conducted to understand the mechanisms driving observed subtidal variability in the stratification of Saldanha Bay, located in the southern Benguela system. It was found that the 6–8 day period variability in bay stratification was caused by the inflow and outflow of cold upwelled water driven by changing baroclinic pressure gradients between the coastal and bay domains. The direction and magnitude of the pressure gradients were governed by coastal upwelling activity and a lag in the response of the bay to changes in density structure in the coastal ocean. When the pressure gradients were bayward and cold water was being driven into the bay the cycle was termed to be in an ‘ active phase ’ and the reverse was termed the ‘ relaxation phase ’. The upwelling-favourable equatorward wind stress impacted the bay stratification in two ways: on the regional scale, wind drives upwelling and governs the inflow–outflow of cold upwelled bottom water, which strengthens stratification; conversely, on the local bay scale, wind drives vertical mixing, which weakens stratification. A four-phase model is used to describe the observed variability in stratification in the bay. The associated density-driven exchange flows are capable of flushing the bay in 6–8 days, about one-third of the time for tidal exchange alone (c. 25 days). These inflows of cold bottom water are ecologically critical as they supply nutrients to the bay and thus impose a control on new production within the bay environment. Further ecological implications of this bay–ocean exchange include export of phytoplankton new production to the coast, limitation of the risk of harmful algal blooms (HABs) and the division of the system into two distinct ecosystems (bay and lagoon).     

A comparative study of microalgal production in a marine versus a river-dominated temporarily open/closed estuary, South Africa

Temporarily open/closed estuaries (TOCEs) account for almost 71% of the total number of South African estuarine systems. To date the dynamics of microalgal production and biomass in TOCEs is poorly understood. A survey was therefore conducted in two TOCEs along the KwaZulu-Natal coast: the river-dominated Mdloti and the marine-dominated Mpenjati. The aims of this investigation were: (1) to compare the variability of benthic and pelagic microalgal production and biomass in these two contrasting systems; (2) to determine the key environmental parameters influencing primary production in these TOCEs. Results show a similar pattern of primary production and biomass in both estuaries. High benthic microalgal biomass with low primary production and low phytoplankton biomass with high rates of pelagic primary production were observed in both estuaries. Possible explanations for this include: (a) optimum light conditions in the water column, compared to the sediment surface; (b) high impact of grazing by zooplankton in the water column; and (c) settling of phytoplankton. Significant correlations were observed between primary production and environmental parameters (K_d, PAR, temperature, DIN and DIP), during the open and closed phases of both estuaries. A BIOENV (PRIMER) analysis showed that patterns of primary production in both estuaries were influenced primarily by interactions of multiple independent parameters. Comparisons between measured hourly pelagic primary production rates at the Mpenjati and Mdloti and the composite parameter (P_c) of Cole and Cloern (1987) revealed highly significant relationships (r² = 0.8; p < 0.001) between these differently derived variables.     

珠江口初级生产力和新生产力研究

1996年12月和1997年8月在珠江河口湾及其毗邻海域对浮游植物生物量、初级生产力和新生产力及其环境制约机制的研究.结果表明,调查海区的叶绿素a、初级生产力和新生产力均是夏季高于冬季,冬、夏两季的平均值分别为(0.95±0.41)和(1.08±0.52)μg/dm3,(69.2±75.5)和(198.7±119.1)mg/(m2·d),(1.46±0.79)和(3.05±3.09)mg/(m3·h).冬、夏两季平均f-比分别为0.45和0.38.分级叶绿素a结果显示,冬、夏两季均以微型和微微型级分(<20μm)占优势,其对海区叶绿素a的贡献分别为796%和81.6%,对初级生产力的贡献分别为70.7%和896%.调查海区具显著的空间区域化特征,叶绿素a和潜在初级生产力的高值出现在冲淡水区的中部,向口门区和远岸区逐渐降低.现场初级生产力的高值出现在远岸区,它与复合参数B_eZ_pI₀(B_e为真光层平均叶绿素a,Z_p为真光层深度,I₀为海面光辐射强度-PAR)呈很好的正相关,说明光是研究海区初级生产力的主要限制因子.新生产力冬、夏两季的高值分别出现在交椅湾和伶仃洋西南部.     

Nutrients,light and phytoplankton production in the shallow,tropical coastal waters of Bandon Bay,Southern Thailand

Phytoplankton primary production and its regulation by light and nutrient availability were investigated in the shallow, tropical coastal waters of Bandon Bay, Southern Thailand. The bay was meso‐eutrophicated and highly turbid, receiving river water discharge. Water column stratification was consistently weak during both rainy and dry seasons. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) was higher off the river mouth than in the other regions, suggesting that river water discharge was a main source of DIN. By contrast, dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) showed a significant negative correlation with total water depth, implying that regeneration around the sea floor was an important source of DIP. Surface DIN and DIP showed positive correlations with surface primary production (PP) and water column primary productivity (ΣPP*), respectively. The combined correlation and model analyses indicate that total water depth had an ambivalent influence on water column primary production (ΣPP); shallower water depth induced more active regeneration of nutrients, but it also caused higher turbidity and lower light availability as a result of enhanced resuspension of sediments. Furthermore, there was a vertical constraint for phytoplankton during the rainy season: total water depth tended to be shallower than euphotic zone depth. In conclusion, light limitation and vertical constraint owing to shallow water depth appear to be more important than nutrient limitation for water column primary production in Bandon Bay.     

Microalgal productivity in an estuarine lake during a drought cycle: The St. Lucia Estuary,South Africa

The St. Lucia estuarine lake on the north coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is one of the largest estuarine systems in Africa and of unique importance for the adjacent marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The area regularly experiences periods of drought, resulting in hypersaline conditions in its shallow lakes and the closure of the estuarine mouth. This study aimed to assess the primary production rates of phytoplankton and microphytobenthos throughout an annual cycle of this drought phase. Primary production rates were assessed at representative sites, namely the Mouth, Narrows, South and North Lakes from June 2006 to May 2007. Because of the drought, the salinity gradient from the mouth to the head of the estuary was reversed by comparison to estuarine systems with a steady freshwater inflow and regular marine exchange. In March 2007, during the study, the mouth opened as a result of rough seas, and the marine influence broke the existing reversed gradient, producing a marine salinity throughout the system. Microphytobenthic primary productivity varied between 0 and 34 mg C m⁻² h⁻¹ and showed strong correlations with salinity, DIN:DIP ratios and irradiance. Benthic productivity was high across the system after breaching of the mouth. Pelagic primary productivity (between 0 and 180 mg C m⁻² h⁻¹), showed a correlation with temperature and irradiance and was highest across the system in February 2007 when the mouth was still closed. There was no significant correlation between production rates and biomass (chl-a) in either the benthic or pelagic habitats. The negative correlation between DIN:DIP ratio and benthic primary productivity indicated that phosphorus was the limiting nutrient. This study shows that salinity, along with seasonally dependent parameters such as temperature and irradiance, correlates with the rate of microalgal production. Hence, in these shallow lakes, the largest primary productivity can occur in either the pelagic or benthic subsystems, depending on prevailing conditions at the time.     

Carbon production and export from Biscayne Bay,Florida. I. Temporal patterns in primary production,seston and zooplankton

Five stations along a transect from the western shore of Biscayne Bay, Florida to the Florida Current were sampled monthly for one year. The variability and amount of seston particulate organic carbon, adenosine triphosphate, chlorophyll a, primary production and zooplankton decreased along the seaward transect. The greater inshore biomass and variability of seston were the result of the allochthonous input of detritus and inorganic nutrients via terrestrial runoff. Annual primary production in this subtropical coastal lagoon ranged from 13 to 46 g C m^?2 yr^?1. Chlorophyll a in the bay ranged from 1 to 3 mg chlorophyll a m^?2. In contrast, chlorophyll a in the surface centimetre of the sediment ranged from 50 to 300 mg chlorophyll a m^?2. In this clear, shallow (2 to 3 m), oligotrophic lagoon, over 90% of total primary production is by submerged macrophytes and benthic algae. The high zooplankton biomass in the bay is most likely sustained by macrophyte detritus and the resuspension of benthic diatoms by the high winds associated with summer squalls and winter cold fronts.     

东北季风期海南岛三亚湾初级生产力分布特征及其影响因素

根据2006年10月和2007年1月的监测资料,对三亚湾在东北季风初始期和盛行期初级生产力的分布特征及其受水体环境的影响因素进行了分析。三亚湾秋、冬季表层潜在初级生产力平均值分别为6.81mgC·m-3·h-1和7.47mgC·m-3·h-1;水柱初级生产力平均值分别为504.96mgC·m-2·d-1和495.33mgC·m-2·d-1。东北季风期间,三亚湾水体垂直混合作用加强,层化现象减弱,水动力过程和营养盐等环境因子是该海湾初级生产力分布特征和季节变化的重要调控因素;其中冬季较高的DIN分布对表层初级生产力有潜在促进作用,而水体扰动增强、真光层深度下降则导致水柱初级生产力低于秋季。三亚河口近岸水域秋、冬季均为营养盐、叶绿素a及初级生产力的高值区,其中表层潜在初级生产力在秋季和冬季分别达到了45.80mgC·m-3·h-1和39.27mgC·m-3·h-1,表明调查期间三亚河营养盐输入对近岸水体浮游植物初级生产过程的显著影响。