Changes in Daily Climate Extremes of Observed Temperature and Precipitation in China

Daily precipitation for 1960–2011 and maximum/minimum temperature extremes for 1960–2008 recorded at 549 stations in China are utilized to investigate climate extreme variations.A set of indices is derived and analyzed with a main focus on the trends and variabilities of daily extreme occurrences.Results show significant increases in daily extreme warm temperatures and decreases in daily extreme cold temperatures,defined as the number of days in which daily maximum temperature(Tmax)and daily minimum temperature(Tmin)are greater than the 90th percentile and less than the10th percentile,respectively.Generally,the trend magnitudes are larger in indices derived from Tmin than those from Tmax.Trends of percentile-based precipitation indices show distinct spatial patterns with increases in heavy precipitation events,defined as the top 95th percentile of daily precipitation,in western and northeastern China and in the low reaches of the Yangtze River basin region,and slight decreases in other areas.Light precipitation,defined as the tail of the5th percentile of daily precipitation,however,decreases in most areas.The annual maximum consecutive dry days(CDD)show an increasing trend in southern China and the middle-low reach of the Yellow River basin,while the annual maximum consecutive wet days(CWD)displays a downtrend over most regions except western China.These indices vary significantly with regions and seasons.Overall,occurrences of extreme events in China are more frequent,particularly the night time extreme temperature,and landmasses in China become warmer and wetter.     

地表气温变化研究的现状和问题

对全球和中国地区平均地表气温变化趋势研究进行了简要评述，对当前研究中需要加强的工作提出了初步建议。     

淮河流域水文极值预测模型研究

为探索气候变化影响下水文极值的非平稳性和预测方法,建立了水文极值非平稳广义极值（GEV）分布的统计预测模型。利用1952-2010年淮河上游流域累计面雨量和流量年最大值资料、同期500 hPa环流特征量资料以及17个CMIP5模式对环流特征量的模拟结果,筛选出对水文极值影响显著的年平均北半球极涡强度指数作为GEV分布参数的预测因子。分析了在RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下2006-2050年淮河上游流域水文极值对气候变化的响应。结果表明,10年以下与10年以上重现期的水文极值在非平稳过程中呈现前者下降而后者上升的相反变化趋势;多模型预测的集合平均在未来情景中均呈现上升趋势,情景排放量越大增幅越大,重现期越长增幅也越大。与极值的常态相比,极值的极端态更易受气候变化影响。     

中国极端气候变化观测研究回顾与展望

评述、总结了近年有关中国极端气候变化的观测研究成果,讨论了尚未解决的科学问题和今后应重点加强的工作方向。已有研究表明,1951年以来中国大陆地区极端气候事件频率和强度发生了一定变化,但不同类型和不同区域极端气候变化存在明显差异。从全国范围看,与异常偏冷相关的极端事件如寒潮、冷夜和冷昼天数、霜冻日数等,显著减少减弱,偏冷的气候极值减轻;与异常偏暖相关的暖夜、暖昼日数明显增多,暖夜日数增多尤其明显,但高温事件频数和偏热的气候极值未见显著长期趋势;全国平均暴雨和极端强降水事件频率和强度有所增长,特别是长江中下游和东南地区、西部特别是西北地区有较明显增长,而华北、东北中南部和西南部分地区减少减弱;多数地区小雨频数明显下降,偏轻和偏强降水的强度似有增加;全国遭受气象干旱的范围呈较明显增加趋势,其中华北和东北地区增加更为显著;登陆和影响我国的热带气旋、台风频数有所下降,其造成的降水总量有较明显减少;北方地区的沙尘暴事件从总体上看有显著减少减弱趋势;我国东部部分地区夏季雷暴发生频率也存在较明显下降趋势。现有工作表明,在涉及极端气候变化研究的资料处理和分析方法方面还有改进余地。观测资料的非均一性,以及观测环境改变和城市化对地面气候要素变化趋势的影响偏差,需要进行深入评价和客观订正。此外,目前对于区域极端气候变化的综合分析还较薄弱,在极端气候变化机理的研究方面有待加强。     

华南暖季极端降水与气温的对应关系

利用华南地区1966—2005年5—10月台站小时降水和日降水以及气温观测资料,分析了极端降水与气温的对应关系。结果表明,气温低于25℃时,日极端降水强度与小时极端降水强度均随气温升高而升高,且越极端的降水出现向两倍Clausius-Clapeyron (CC)变率转换的气温越低;气温高于25℃时,日极端降水强度和小时极端降水强度出现不同程度的下降,其中前者下降更为显著。考察降水持续时长发现,气温高于25℃时,华南地区小时极端降水随气温的下降主要由短持续性降水所贡献;气温高于28℃时几乎无长持续性降水发生。     

极端天气和气候事件的变化

自1950年以来的观测证据表明,有些极端天气和气候事件已经发生了变化。全球尺度上,人为影响可能已经导致极端日最低和最高温度升高;由于平均海平面上升,人类活动可能已对沿海极端高水位事件的增加产生了影响;具有中等信度的是,人为影响已导致全球强降水增加;由于热带气旋历史记录的不确定性、缺乏对热带气旋与气候变化之间关联的物理机制的完整认识及热带气旋自然变率的程度,将可检测到的热带气旋活动变化归因于人为影响仅具有低信度。将单一的极端事件变化归因于人为气候变化具有挑战性。对极端事件变化预估的信度取决于事件的类型、区域和季节、观测资料的数量和质量、基本物理过程的认知水平及模式对其模拟的可靠性。     

Changes in Seasonal Cycle and Extremes in China during the Period 1960–2008

Recent trends in seasonal cycles in China are analyzed, based on a homogenized dataset of daily temperatures at 541 stations during the period 1960–2008. Several indices are defined for describing the key features of a seasonal cycle, including local winter/summer (LW/LS) periods and local spring/autumn phase (LSP/LAP). The Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition method is applied to determine the indices for each year. The LW period was found to have shortened by 2–6 d (10 yr)-1, mainly due to an earlier end to winter conditions, with the LW mean temperature having increased by 0.2°C–0.4°C (10 yr)?1, over almost all of China. Records of the most severe climate extremes changed less than more typical winter conditions did. The LS period was found to have lengthened by 2–4 d (10 yr)?1, due to progressively earlier onsets and delayed end dates of the locally defined hot period. The LS mean temperature increased by 0.1°C–0.2°C (10 yr)-1 in most of China, except for a region in southern China centered on the mid-lower reaches of the Yangtze River. In contrast to the winter cases, the warming trend in summer was more prominent in the most extreme records than in those of more typical summer conditions. The LSP was found to have advanced significantly by about 2 d (10 yr)-1 in most of China. Changes in the autumn phase were less prominent. Relatively rapid changes happened in the 1980s for most of the regional mean indices dealing with winter and in the 1990s for those dealing with summer.     

极值统计理论的进展及其在气候变化研究中的应用

着重论述极值统计分布在极端天气气候事件和重大工程设计中的重要意义,综述该领域国内外研究进展。例如,基于超门限峰值法（POT）的广义帕累托分布（GPD)和基于单元极大值法（BM）的广义极值分布（GEV）及其参数间的理论关系;采用极值分布模型与多状态一阶Markov链相结合构建降尺度模型模拟局地极端降水事件,推算一定重现期的极端降水量的分位数;探讨极值分布模型分位数估计误差问题,多维极值分布理论及其应用等问题。     

中国20年一遇气温和降水极值变化的高分辨率模拟

基于25 km高分辨率区域气候模式（RegCM3）嵌套MIROC3.2_hires全球气候模式结果,进行IPCC SRES A1B情景下21世纪气候变化的模拟,分析中国区域未来气温和降水极值重现期的变化。首先检验模式对当代（1981-2000年）极端事件重现期的模拟能力,结果表明,模式能够较好地再现中国地区20年一遇极端事件的基本分布型,但所模拟的数值与观测相比还有一定偏差,特别是在极端降水方面。21世纪中期（2041-2060年）和末期（2081-2100年）20年一遇的高温极值在整个区域内均将升高,东北地区增幅最大;低温极值将增大,中心位于内蒙古、新疆及青藏高原南麓;降水极值也将普遍增大。气温和降水极值在21世纪末期的增加幅度均比中期要大。在未来全球变暖背景下,中国地区极端高温事件将明显增多,面积增大;极端低温事件将大幅度减少,面积减少;强降水事件也将增多,面积不断扩大。     

长江流域极端降水时空分布和趋势

1986年以来，长江流域的极端强降水出现了显著增加的趋势，突出表现在中下游地区。长江中下游地区极端降水量的增加，既是极端降水强度增强，也是极端降水事件显著增加的结果。长江流域极端降水变化主要发生在东南部和西南部。趋势分析表明，自20世纪80年代中期以来，长江流域上游极端降水事件峰值提前到6月份出现，与长江中下游极端降水峰值出现的时间几乎同步，这必将加大遭遇性洪水发生的机率。20世纪90年代以来长江洪水的频繁发生，与长江流域极端降水时空分布的变化密切相关。     

Sea Surface Temperature Extremes of Different Intensity in the China Seas During the Global Warming Acceleration and Hiatus Periods

Based on the daily OISST V2 with 0.25o horizontal resolutions, we study the variations of sea surface temperature (SST) extremes in the China Seas for different segments of the period 1982-2013. The two segments include the warming acceleration period from 1982 to 1997 and hiatus period from 1998 to 2013 when the global surface mean temperature (GSMT) was not significantly warming as expected during the past decades, or even cooling in some areas. First, we construct the regional average time series over the entire China Seas (15o–45oN, 105o–130oE) for these SST extremes. During the hiatus period, the regionally averaged 10th, 1th and 0.1th percentile of SSTs in each year decreased significantly by 0.40°C, 0.56°C and 0.58°C per decade, respectively. The regionally averaged 90th, 99th and 99.9th percentile of SSTs in each year decreased slightly or insignificantly. Our work confirmed that the regional hiatus was primarily reflected by wintertime cold extremes. Spatially, the trends of cold extremes in different intensity were non-uniformly distributed. Cold extremes in the near-shore areas are much more sensitivity to the global warming hiatus. Hot extremes trends exhibited non-significant tendency in the China Seas during the hiatus period. In word, the variations of the SST extremes in the two periods were non-uniform spatially and asymmetric seasonally. It is unexpected that the hot and cold extremes of each year in 1998–2013 were still higher than those extremes in 1982–1997. It is obvious that relative to the warming acceleration period, hot extremes are far more likely to occur in the recent hiatus as a result of a 0.3°C warmer shift in the mean temperature distribution. Moreover, hot extremes in the China Seas will be sustained or amplified with the end of warming hiatus and the continuous anthropogenic warming.     

2021: A Year of Unprecedented Climate Extremes in Eastern Asia,North America,and Europe

The year 2021 was recorded as the 6th warmest since 1880. In addition to large-scale warming, 2021 will be remembered for its unprecedented climate extremes. Here, a review of selected high-impact climate extremes in 2021, with a focus on China, along with an extension to extreme events in North America and Europe is presented. Nine extreme events that occurred in 2021 in China are highlighted, including a rapid transition from cold to warm extremes and sandstorms in spring, consecutive drought in South China and severe thunderstorms in eastern China in the first half of the year, extremely heavy rainfall over Henan Province and Hubei Province during summer, as well as heatwaves, persistent heavy rainfall, and a cold surge during fall. Potential links of extremes in China to four global-scale climate extremes and the underlying physical mechanisms are discussed here, providing insights to understand climate extremes from a global perspective. This serves as a reference for climate event attribution, process understanding, and high-resolution modeling of extreme events.     

21世纪中国极端降水事件预估

摘 要：全球变暖背景下极端降水事件的变化一直受到广泛关注,本文从观测、理论及模拟预估等方面对近十多年来国内外极端降水气候事件的研究作一综述,并给出IPCC第四次评估报告对我国21世纪极端降水指数变化的预估结果。     

以高山站为背景研究城市化对气温变化趋势的影响

本文基于1957~2005年的逐日气象资料,对比分析了中国东部7组高山气象站和山下附近的城市气象站年 与四季气温变化趋势.在此基础上,利用高山站作为气候变化背景场来分析城市化对平均气温、最高气温、最低气温变化趋势影响的性质和程度,及其对气温变化非对称性的影响.结果表明:平均气温和最低气温变化趋势城市站多比高山站大,而最高气温变化趋势高山站多比城市站大;城市站最低气温变化趋势均大于最高气温变化趋势,具有明显的非对称性现象,而高山站这种表现十分微弱.城市站气温变化受到明显的城市化影响,对于平均气温和最低气温以正影响为主,而对于最高气温为负影响为主,说明城市化对气温变化的影响也存在非对称性.城市化影响的非对称性是气温变化非对称性形成的主要因素.     

1901-2007年澳门地面气温变化的分析

 利用澳门的气温观测资料, 分析了澳门1901-2007年地面气温变化的基本特征。结果表明：近107 a的升温率为0.066℃/10a, 明显低于全球平均升温率。季节平均气温的年代际变化有明显的季节差异,最大的增暖发生在春季和冬季,夏季的增暖最小;冬、夏季的变化分别有明显的时间尺度约为60 a和30 a的振动。年平均最高气温的升温率仅为最低气温的一半左右。最高气温的年代际变化呈缓慢的气候波动现象,20世纪80年代中期以后的升幅与历史上的增暖大致相当;最低气温近20多年来的增暖趋势可能是其长期（变暖）趋势的延续。年平均日较差整体来说是趋于减少的,但近30 a却趋于增加。     

Changes in Canada's Climate: Trends in Indices Based on Daily Temperature and Precipitation Data

ABSTRACT

Trends in indices based on daily temperature and precipitation are examined for two periods: 1948–2016 for all stations in Canada and 1900–2016 for stations in the south of Canada. These indices, a number of which reflect extreme events, are considered to be impact relevant. The results show changes consistent with warming, with larger trends associated with cold temperatures. The number of summer days (when daily maximum temperature >25°C) has increased at most locations south of 65°N, and the number of hot days (daily maximum temperature >30°C) and hot nights (daily minimum temperature >22°C) have increased at a few stations in the most southerly regions. Very warm temperatures in both summer and winter (represented by the 95th percentile of their daily maximum and minimum temperatures, respectively) have increased across the country, with stronger trends in winter. Warming is more pronounced for cold temperatures. The frost-free season has become longer with fewer frost days, consecutive frost days, and ice days. Very cold temperatures in both winter and summer (represented by the 5th percentile of their daily maximum and minimum temperatures, respectively) have increased substantially across the country, again with stronger trends in the winter. Changes in other temperature indices are consistent with warming. The growing season is now longer, and the number of growing degree-days has increased. The number of heating degree-days has decreased across the country, while the number of cooling degree-days has increased at many stations south of 55°N. The frequency of annual and spring freeze–thaw days shows an increase in the interior provinces and a decrease in the remainder of the country. Changes in precipitation indices are less spatially coherent. An increase in the number of days with rainfall and heavy rainfall is found at several locations in the south. A decrease in the number of days with snowfall and heavy snowfall is observed in the western provinces, while an increase is found in the north. There is no evidence of significant changes in the annual highest 1-day rainfall and 1-day snowfall. The maximum number of consecutive dry days has decreased, mainly in the south.     

未来情景下南水北调中线工程水源区极端降水分布特征

利用南水北调中线工程水源区9个气象站点1961-2008年的日降水资料和IPCC第四次评估报告多模式数据结果,抽取逐年的最大日降水量序列样本,运用广义极值分布（GEV）和广义帕累托分布 (GPD）两种极值统计模型对样本进行拟合,遴选出描述流域最大日降水量分布规律的最优概率模型,推算重现期对应的降水量值,并预估该流域极端降水事件在未来气候变化情景下的响应。研究表明：南水北调中线工程水源区降水极值均符合GEV和GPD分布,但GPD模型更适合用于描述该流域降水极值分布;未来气候变化情景下用GPD分布拟合的降水极值优于使用GEV分布;A2情景下极端降水事件的发生将更频繁、更强烈,A1B情景下次之,B1情景下相对较小,表明未来高排放气候情景对极端降水事件的影响比中、低排放情景大。     

中国大城市极端强降水事件变化的初步分析

利用中国753个台站1951～2005年的逐日降水资料,初步分析了人口在一百万以上的大城市极端强降水事件的变化特征及其与周围的区别.得到以下主要结论:大城市极端降水事件的变化受所在区域的变化影响很大,不同地区大城市又具有其独特的变化特点,半数以上的大城市极端降水强度和频数的变化趋势比周围大.大体上,北方尤其是在华北南部,大城市极端降水强度和频数增加的趋势比周围大;与华北地区整体上的减弱趋势不同,华北东南部大城市极端降水强度呈较明显的增强趋势.     

近百年中国地表气温变化趋势的再分析

重新考虑了1950年前后器测资料的非均一性问题,统一采用最高温度和最低温度计算月平均温度,利用国际上通行的区域平均温度序列计算方法,建立了中国近100年的地表气温序列,并对气温变化趋势进行了再分析.结果表明,自1905年以来中国地表年平均气温明显增暖,升高幅度约为0.79℃,增温速率约为0.08℃/10 a,比同期全球或北半球平均略高.但是,20世纪80年代初以来的增温似乎不比30～40年代明显,而20世纪50～60年代地表气温的变冷却比全球或北半球显著得多.和全球平均温度变化一样,近100年来中国的增温也主要发生在冬季和春季,而夏季却有微弱变凉趋势.新的全国平均气温序列与以往的研究结果比较给出了更高的增温趋势估计值,这主要与采用新的月平均气温统计方法改善了原序列的均一性有关.另一方面,由于早期资料覆盖面积比例低和后期城市化影响等问题,这里给出的增温趋势估计仍然存在着较大的不确定性.     

近54年中国地面气温变化

采用国家基准气候站和基本气象站地面月平均气温资料,在严格质量控制和非均一性订正的基础上,分析了1951年以来中国大陆地区近地表年和季节平均气温演化的时间与空间特征.结果表明,我国近54年来年平均地表气温变暖幅度约为1.3℃,增温速率接近0.25℃/10 a,比全球或半球同期平均增温速率高得多.全国大范围增暖主要发生在近20余年.气温变化的季节差异和空间特征与前人分析结论基本一致,冬季增温速率高达0.39℃/10 a,春季为0.28℃/10 a,秋季0.20℃/10 a,夏季增温速率最小,但也达到0.15℃/10 a.我国20世纪80年代初期开始的明显增暖主要表现在冷季,但进入90年代以来夏季增暖也日趋明显.从区域上看,中国大陆地区最明显的增温发生在北方和青藏高原地区,而西南的四川盆地和云贵高原北部仍维持弱的降温趋势.值得提出的是,作者给出的结果尚未考虑城镇化对地面气温观测记录的影响.