Use of solution-mined caverns in salt for oil and gas storage and toxic waste disposal in Germany

The need for storage caverns for oil and gas, and repositories for toxic chemical waste is increasing world-wide. Rock salt formations are particularly suitable for the construction of cavities for such purposes. Owing to its favourable geomechanical properties, rock salt remains stable over long periods of time without support, and it can be shown that the geological barrier of the host rock remains intact for a remarkably long time.

Safety analysis must be made for each proposed site based on site-specific data. The methods of doing this are well known and related technical recommendations exist in Germany. These recommendations apply to the planning, construction, operation and post-operational management of salt caverns used for the underground disposal of hazardous wastes. In particular, geotechnical site-specific safety verification, as required by the government's technical regulations on wastes (TA-Abfall) under the section “Underground Disposal”, is required. This safety verification must cover the entire system comprising the waste, the cavern and the surrounding rocks. For this purpose geomechanical models have to be developed. The steps which must be taken when carrying out geological engineering site explorations and when determining geotechnical parameters are discussed. In addition, recommendations are made for the design and construction of underground repositories.

For liquid-filled caverns, long-term sealing from the biosphere is of particular interest. In this instance it must be shown that the natural increase in pressure in the closed cavity due to long-term convergence does not exceed the fracture pressure. A special filled test (scale 1:1) has been performed to study this.     

Principles of geomechanical safety assessment for radioactive waste disposal in salt structures

Today, a large amount of knowledge is available concerning various sites of potential high active waste (HAW) repositories in salt media. Domal Zechstein salt formations have been examined at several sites in Germany. Extensive R&D work was initiated in the former Asse Salt Mine in order to explore the suitability of salt for waste isolation by laboratory tests, theoretical studies and in-situ tests with test results forming a technological base for future repository development.

Resulting from the inhomogeneity of salt structures the demanded safety of a permanent repository for radioactive wastes can be demonstrated only by a specific site analysis in which the entire system, “the geological situation, the repository, and the form and amount of the wastes” and their interrelationships are taken into consideration.

The site analysis has three essential tasks: (1) Assessment of the thermomechanical load capacity of the host rock, so that deposition strategies can be determined for the site; (2) Determination of the safe dimensions of the mine (e.g. stability of the caverns and safety of the operations); and (3) Evaluation of the barriers and the long-term safety analysis for the authorization procedure.

The geotechnical stability analysis is a critical part of the safety assessment. Engineering–geological study of the site, laboratory and in situ-experiments, geomechanical modelling, and numerical static calculations comprise such an analysis.

Within a scenario analysis — according to the multi-barrier principle, the geological setting is checked to be able to contribute significantly to the waste isolation over long periods. The assessment of the integrity of the geological barrier can only be performed by making calculations with geomechanical and hydrogeological models. The proper idealization of the host rock in a computational model is the basis of a realistic calculation of stress distribution and excavation damage effects. The determination of water permeability along discontinuities is necessary in order to evaluate the barrier efficiency of each host rock.

In this paper some important processes for the performance assessment are described, namely creep and fracturing, permeability and infiltration, and halokinesis and subrosion.

For the future, the role and contributions of geoscientific and rock mechanics work within the safety assessment issues (e.g. geomechanical safety indicators) must be identified in greater detail, e.g. considerations of geomechanical natural analogy for calibration of constitutive laws.     

Engineering geological evaluation of geological barrier rocks at landfills and repositories

 A site specific evaluation of geological barriers is required for landfills and waste repositories. The waste-repository-rock system has to be taken into consideration for this. Since the geotechnical barrier in conjunction with geological barriers contributes considerably to long-term isolation of the harmful substances from the biosphere, it is absolutely necessary to use engineering geology and hydrogeological methods for a quantitative assessment of the barrier effect of the host rock and the geological environment. For a waste disposal mine, the load-bearing capacity of the rock, the protective properties of the surrounding rock formations and the geological stability of the area are important factors in a safety analysis, of which the geotechnical stability analysis is an important part. Such an analysis comprises an engineering geological study of the site, laboratory and in situ experiments and model calculations, long-term monitoring, and special geological and geochemical investigations. Existing geomechanical modelling techniques provide a useful tool to perform barrier integrity calculations and to design an underground disposal mine. As an example, the barrier performance of the rock salt of the Gorleben salt dome is demonstrated using various safety indicators. Received: 3 January 1997 · Accepted: 29 January 1997     

原型处置库

论述高放废物地质处置研究中的原型处置库的概念、建造目的和研究的主要内容,以及它在处置库系统性能评价中的作用。原型处置库的研究工作,可以在普通地下实验室中进行（如瑞典的魧sp觟地下实验室）,也可以在特定场址地下实验室中进行（如美国尤卡山的ESF坑道）,它是以往20多年前地下实验室研究中演示阶段的扩展和延伸,是高放废物地质处置研究中最终确认处置库场址的一个必不可少的研究步骤,同时也为处置库地下工程的详细设计提供最接近于当地建库实际的各类技术参数。     

高放废物地质处置黏土岩处置库围岩研究现状

世界上很多国家都对处置库的可能围岩进行了详细研究。通过对比,认为花岗岩、黏土岩、岩盐比较适合作为处置库围岩,而黏土岩由于具有自封闭性、渗透率低等其他岩石类型不可比拟的优点,因而将黏土岩作为高放废物地质处置库围岩越来越受到各国的关注。文章同时介绍了瑞士、法国、比利时等国家在黏土岩中所进行的大量研究,均认为在黏土岩中处置高放废物和乏燃料是安全的。文章还对黏土岩处置库概念设计、黏土岩处置库围岩地下实验室研究,以及我国开展黏土岩处置库研究的意义等进行了综述。     

考虑细观等效热学参数的高放废物处置库围岩应力−渗流−温度耦合模拟方法

高放废物处置库中乏燃料持续释放的热量对围岩的应力场和渗流场及其长期稳定性具有重要影响。围岩的热学参数依赖于岩石矿物组成、孔隙率和孔隙流体等因素,准确取值是进行高放废物地质处置库多场耦合分析的前提。通过细观力学分析,建立了围岩等效热学参数（热容、热传导系数、热膨胀系数）取值方法,并基于Biot孔隙介质理论,建立应力?温度?渗流三场耦合模型,进而提出了高放废物处置库围岩应力?渗流?温度耦合数值模拟方法。最后通过COMSOL Multiphysics多场耦合软件,利用瑞士Mont Terri高放废物地下试验室围岩温度?渗流?应力多场耦合现场试验数据对数值模拟方法进行验证,并探讨了温度?渗流?应力耦合过程的演化规律。研究表明,模拟结果和试验值吻合良好。研究结果可为我国高放废物处置库的安全评估和选址提供科学依据。     

高放废物处置库选址中低渗透介质地质研究的几个问题

低渗透介质是阻碍有害物质在地下迁移良好的天然屏障, 因此成为高放废物处置库围岩类型的首选。本文通过对高放废物处置库选址中地质研究的回顾, 阐述了低渗透介质地质研究的特点, 对地质参数测定、取样、水流模拟、地球化学模拟进行了重点介绍。     

基于BQ系统的阿拉善巴彦诺日公NRG01号钻孔岩体质量评价

高放废物深部地质处置目前受到世界各国的高度重视,处置库围岩岩体质量评价是高放废物处置库选址的关键问题之一。文章基于BQ系统对我国高放废物地质处置库阿拉善预选区巴彦诺日公NRG01号钻孔进行了岩体质量评价。NRG01号孔钻孔资料丰富,采用岩芯编录、波速测井、水压致裂地应力测量及岩石波速测试、单轴压缩试验等多种方法手段相结合的方式获取了BQ评价系统中的各个参数。评价过程中,综合考虑了岩体坚硬程度、完整程度及地下水、软弱结构面、初始地应力等因素对围岩稳定的影响。根据计算的[BQ]值对岩体质量进行评价并与RQD评价结果进行对比。评价结果表明,NRG01号孔岩体质量较好,Ⅰ级和Ⅱ级岩体占90%,410~500 m的岩体范围可作为处置库建设的目标岩体。[BQ]值与RQD值所得的岩体质量评价结果一致性良好,但由于BQ系统考虑的影响因素更为全面,评价结果更为精细。本次评价可为巴彦诺日公地段高放废物地质处置库场址比选及处置库目标岩体选择提供依据。     

地质系统热-水-力耦合作用的随机建模初步研究

热-水-力(THM)耦合作用是岩石力学与环境地质中的重要基础理论问题,核废料地质处置库周围的缓冲材料和围岩中的热-水-力耦合现象将影响其力学稳定性、热传导性和渗透性,进而影响放射性核素在裂隙岩体中的迁移规律。核废料或放射性废料的地下深埋处置是国际上正在研究的永久性隔离的有效方法之一。因此,对核废料地质处置法安全性评估的一个重要内容就是对裂隙岩体中力学稳定性与构造应力、地下水渗流及热载荷等的耦合作用之数值模拟和评估。这已成为当前刻不容缓的重要的环境影响评价课题。笔者研究了温度场-渗流场-应力场中热传导系数和渗透率以及岩体力学参数的空间变异性,用实验方法研究三场耦合效应及裂隙岩体的场性能等效处理,试图建立热-水-力耦合作用的随机性数学模型及可视化数值模拟方法,为核废料地质处置安全性评估提供直观的新方法。     

Seismogeological acceptance criteria for geological repositories for spent nuclear fuel

Qualitative geological acceptance criteria and quantitative seismological acceptance criteria for radioactive waste disposals are developed. The background material for the initiation of site selection and for its earthquake hazard assessment is discussed. The recent movements of the Earth's surface as well as the other mechanical properties of geological media, hydrological conditions of geological blocks, their groundwater chemistry, geochemical rheology, petrological analyses of rocks, etc., have to be taken into account. A new comprehensive integrated safety analysis of the final underground disposal of spent nuclear fuel has been underway in the Czech Republic since 1991. In accordance with these seismogeological acceptance criteria regions for building underground final radioactive waste disposals are singled out in the Czech Republic.     

Investigation on gas migration behaviours in saturated compacted bentonite under rigid boundary conditions

Acta Geotechnica - To ensure the long-term safety and performance efficiency of a deep geological repository for disposal of high-level radioactive waste, understanding and assessment of gas...     

高放废物深地质处置地下水数值模拟应用综述

开展地下水数值模拟研究是高放废物处置场地安全评价的重要组成部分,然而深地质处置介质类型的复杂性、基岩深部资料的相对匮乏性导致模拟结果存在不确定性,如何刻画深部地下水动力场并评估可能引起的风险已成为高放废物处置安全评价中重点关注的问题。在大量文献调研的基础上,综述了世界典型国家高放废物深地质处置场地的地下水数值模拟与不确定性分析应用,并归纳总结该领域研究经验,得到以下认识:（1）深地质处置场深部构造、裂隙的发育与展布决定了地下水循环条件,探究适用于基岩裂隙地区新的水文地质试验方法是提高地下水数值模型仿真性的基础;（2）不同尺度模型融合是解决深地质处置地下水模拟的有效技术方法,区域尺度多采用等效连续介质法,场地尺度使用等效连续多孔介质和离散裂隙网络耦合模型,处置库尺度使用离散裂隙网络方法,其次需重点关注未来大时间尺度下放射性核素在地质体中的迁移转化规律,模拟预测场址区域地下水环境长期循环演变对核素迁移的潜在影响;（3）考虑到不同的处置层主岩岩性以及在多介质中发生的THMC（温度场—渗流场—应力场—化学场）过程,目前国内外常用的地下水模拟软件有:Porflow、Modflow、GMS及MT3DMS等用于模拟孔隙或等效连续介质,Connectflow、Feflow及FracMan等用于模拟地下水和核素在结晶岩、花岗岩等裂隙中的迁移,TOUGH系列软件主要应用于双重介质的水流、溶质及热运移模拟;（4）指导开展有针对性的模型和参数的不确定性分析工作,减少投入工作量,提高模型精度,并可针对处置库长期演变、废物罐失效、极端降雨等多情景预测模拟,为处置库安全评价及设计提供基础数据支撑;（5）针对我国深地质处置地下水数值模拟研究现状,下一步应加强区域地质、水文地质、裂隙测量以及现场试验等相关的调查及监测工作,多介质耦合、多场耦合模拟及不确定性分析研究将会是未来的研究重点。     

高放废物地质处置阿拉善预选区工程地质适宜性评价

区域工程地质适宜性评价是高放废物处置库选址的关键问题之一。基于ArcGIS平台,采用综合指数模型对我国高放核废物处置库阿拉善预选区进行了区域工程地质适宜性评价。在现场工程地质调查与资料系统收集的基础上,综合考虑了核废料选址的特殊目的和要求,比选确定岩性、断裂构造、地震、构造应力、地形变作为阿拉善区域工程地质适宜性评价的因子。利用专家-层次分析法确定了各评价指标的权重,基于评价指标及权重的确定,按适宜性好、适宜性较好、适宜性中等、适宜性较差和适宜性差5个级别对阿拉善区域进行了工程地质适宜性分区。评价分区结果为阿拉善预选区高放废物处置适宜性地段选取提供了依据,其中的塔木素和诺日公区段是适宜性良好的两个地段,进一步的选址工作可在这两个地段开展。     

Mathematical modelling of groundwater flow at Sellafield, UK

Sellafield in West Cumbria was a potential site for the location of the UK's first underground repository for radioactive, intermediate level waste (ILW). The repository was to lie around 650 m beneath the ground surface within rocks of the Borrowdale volcanic group (BVG), a thick suite of SW dipping, fractured, folded and metamorphosed Ordovician meta-andesites and ignimbrites. These are overlain by an onlapping sequence of Carboniferous and Permo-Triassic sediments. In situ borehole measurements showed that upward trending fluid pressure gradients exist in the area of the potential repository site, and that there are three distinct fluid types in the subsurface; fresh, saline and brine (at depth, to the west of the site). Simulations of fluid flow in the Sellafield region were undertaken with a 2D, steady-state, coupled fluid and heat flow simulation code (OILGEN). In both simplified and geologically complex models, topographically driven flow dominated the regional hydrogeology. Fluids trended persistently upwards through the potential repository site. The dense brine to the west of the site promoted upward deflection of topographically driven groundwaters. The inclusion in hydrogeological models of faults and variably saline sub-surface fluids was essential to the accurate reproduction of regional hydraulic head variations. Sensitivity analyses of geological variables showed that the rate of groundwater flow through the potential repository site was dependent upon the hydraulic conductivity of the BVG, and was unaffected by the hydraulic conductivity of other hydrostratigraphic units. Calibration of the model was achieved by matching simulated subsurface pressures to those measured in situ. Simulations performed with BVG hydraulic conductivity 100 times the base case median value provided the “best-fit” comparison between the calculated equivalent freshwater head and that measured in situ, regardless of the hydraulic conductivity of other hydrostratigraphic units. Transient mass transport simulations utilising the hydraulic conductivities of this “best fit” simulation showed that fluids passing through the potential repository site could reach the surface in 15 000 years. Simple safety case implications drawn from the results of the study showed that the measured BVG hydraulic conductivity must be less than 0.03 m year⁻¹ to be simply declared safe. Recent BVG hydraulic conductivity measurements showed that the maximum BVG hydraulic conductivity is around 1000 times this safety limit.     

花岗岩型地质处置库情景试构建与分析

高水平放射性废物(高放废物)地质处置库关闭后长期演变情景的构建和定量分析是安全评价的关键。研究以拟建于北山预选区的花岗岩型处置库为研究对象,对情景开发及其分析进行了初步探索。采用"自下而上"的情景开发方法,构建了处置库关闭后预期演变情景和3类典型的非预期演变情景,对各类情景条件下的核素释放率进行了计算和分析。结果表明,现有条件下,处置库具备较好的安全性;为提升安全评价的可靠度,需要进一步加强情景不确定性的分析。     

Geoscientific R&D for high level radioactive waste disposal in Sweden — current status and future plans

SKB (Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB) is responsible for all handling, transport and storage of the nuclear wastes outside the Swedish nuclear power stations. According to Swedish law, SKB is responsible for an R&D-programme needed to take care of the radwastes. The programme comprises, among others, a general supportive geo-scientific R&D and the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (HRL) for more in-situ specific tasks.

Sweden is geologically located in the Fennoscandian shield which is dominated by gneisses and granitoids of Precambrian age. The Swedish reference repository concept thus considers an excavated vault at ca. 500 m depth in crystalline rocks. In this concept (KBS-3), copper canisters with high level waste will be emplaced in deposition holes from a system of tunnels. Blocks of highly compacted swelling bentonite clay are placed in the holes leaving ample space for the canisters. At the final closure of the repository, the galleries are backfilled with a mixture of sand and bentonite. This repository design aims to make the disposal system as redundant as possible. Although the KBS-3 concept is the reference concept, alternative concepts and/or repository lay-outs are also studied. The main alternative, currently under development at SKB, is disposal in boreholes with depths of 4–5 km. The geoscientific research will to a great extent be guided by the demands posed by the performance and safety assessments, as well as the constuctability issues. Some main functions of the geological barrier are fundamental for the long-term safety of a repository. These are: bedrock mechanical stability, a chemically stable environment as well as a slow and stable groundwater flux. The main time-table for the final disposal of long-lived radioactive waste in Sweden foresees the final selection of the disposal system and site during the beginning of next decade.     

高放废物深地质处置：回顾与展望

文章对我国高放废物地质处置研究的历史进行了回顾,并对未来发展进行了展望。我国的高放废物深地质处置研究开发从1985年开始,迄今为止可初步分为3个阶段：①起步和跟踪研究阶段（1985～1998）;②逐步发展阶段（1999～2005）;③政府规划指导阶段（2006至今）。20多年来,我国在国家法律法规、战略规划、选址、工程屏障、核素迁移研究等方面取得了显著进展。我国已经提出在2020年前建成地下实验室、21世纪中叶建成高放废物处置库的目标。研究开发和处置库工程建设分成3个阶段：试验室研究开发和处置库选址阶段（2006～2020）;地下现场试验阶段（2021-2040）和处置库建设阶段（2041～本世纪中叶）。经过全国筛选对比,已初步选定甘肃北山地区为重点预选区,系统的场址评价工作正在进行。已确定采用膨润土作为处置库的回填材料,并初步确定内蒙古高庙子膨润土为我国高放废物处置库的首选缓冲回填材料。工程设计、核素迁移研究和安全评价也取得了一定进展。1999年起与国际原子能机构开展了3期高放废物地质处置技术合作项目,对提高我国的技术水平起到了积极作用。20多年的研究开发工作为我国在21世纪完成高放废物地质处置任务奠定了基础。     

The French experience in low level radioactive waste management

The Radioactive Waste Management Agency (ANDRA-FRANCE) is now operating a new facility in the eastern part of the Paris basin which is designed to dispose of one million cubic meters of waste.

The safety of the waste disposal is based on a multibarrier concept including waste packages, concrete disposal modules, site and closure operations.

Under normal conditions, confinement is guaranteed by the waste packages and the disposal modules, as they prevent the waste from being leached by rainfall or underground water over a certain period of time.

The site must bring an additional guarantee concerning the isolation of waste from water. Consequently, the chosen site must be located in an area where no natural disasters (landslides, earthquakes, etc.) can harm the isolating barriers. The geological, hydrogeological and chemical characteristics must allow us to minimize and control the transport of radionuclides within the ground. Finally, the chosen site must be in an area where it is easy to implement a system to monitor the environment.

A set of criteria guides the choice of site. The criteria include such factors as low seismicity, geotechnical stability, a hydrogeology that is simple to model, a location sufficiently above the water table and safe from the threat of flooding, good radionuclide sorption and the absence of any mineral or other natural resources of economic interest.

At the time of the closure of the disposal facility, the entire collection of modules will be covered by an impervious cap composed of clayey layers interbedded by sandy layers and overlain by humus to promote the growth of grass. The facility will then look like a succession of undulating green mounds.

A 300-year monitoring period will follow the closure. During this period, the water collecting networks and cap will be maintained and radioactivity in underground and stream water will be controlled.

We have selected the AUBE site as a case study to illustrate the French waste management experience. We will report on how the site characterization program has been calTied out, including the hydrogeological modelling which is being applied to both the operating and post-closure periods.     

高放废物地质处置数据资源集成开发进展

数据资源是高放废物地质处置库选址、安全评价、工程建设等研发的重要基础,该领域数据具有典型的大数据特性,其开发利用是一项长期、系统的科学工程。文章对我国高放废物地质处置数据资源集成开发策略、方法和现状进行了简要介绍,阐述了高放废物地质处置研发过程中产生的各类科学数据的具体特性,提出建立我国高放废物地质处置大数据平台的规划设想,重点介绍了处置库预选区地学信息集成开发现状。