SATELLITE-BASED ANALYSIS ON THE CONCENTRIC EYEWALL REPLACEMENT CYCLES OF SUPER TYPHOON MUIFA (1109)

Multisatellite data is used to analyze the characteristics of three eyewall replacement cycles (ERCs) during the lifetime of Typhoon Muifa (1109). Spiral rainbands evolutions, concentric eyewall (CE) structure modes, CE durations, and intensity changes are discussed in detail. In addition, an ERC evolution model of Typhoon Muifa is given. There are four main findings. (1) The outer spiral rainband joins end to end to form the outer eyewall after it disconnects from the original (inner) eyewall. The inner eyewall weakens as the outer eyewall becomes axisymmetric and is intensified. The contraction of the outer eyewall causes the inner eyewall to dissipate rapidly. Finally, the ERC ends with an annular eyewall or spiral rainbands. (2) Although the CE duration times of Typhoon Muifa’s three ERCs covered a large range, the CE structures were all maintained for approximately 5 h from the formation of the axisymmetric outer eyewall to the end of the cycle. (3) There is no obvious precipitation reflectivity in the eye or moat region for the subsidence flow. The convection within the two eyewalls is organized as a radially outward slope with increasing height. (4) Typhoon intensity estimation results based on ADT may not explain the intensity variations associated with ERC correctly, while the typhoon’s warm core data retrieved from AMSU-A works well.     

Effect of tropical cyclone intensity and instability on the evolution of spiral bands

The evolution of spiral-band-like structures triggered by asymmetric heating in three tropical-cyclone-like vortices of different intensities is examined using the Three-Dimensional Vortex Perturbation Analyzer and Simulator （3DVPAS） model. To simulate the spiral bands, asymmetric thermal perturbations are imposed on the radius of maximum wind （RMW） of vortices, which can be considered as the location near the eyewall of real tropical cyclones （TCs）. All the three vortices experience a hydrostatic adjustment after the introduction of thermal asymmetries. It takes more time for weaker and stable vortices to finish such a process. The spiral-band-like structures, especially those distant from the vortex centers, form and evolve accompanying this process. In the quasi-balance state, the spiral bands are gradually concentrated to the inner core, the wave behavior of which resembles the features of classic vortex Rossby （VR） waves. The unstable vortices regain nonhydrostatic features after the quasi-balance stage. The spiral bands further from the vortex center, similar to distant spiral bands in real TCs, form and maintain more easily in the moderate basic-state vortex, satisfying the conditions of barotropic instability. The widest radial extent and longest-lived distant bands always exist in weak and stable vortices. This study represents an attempt to determine the role of TC intensity and stability in the formation and evolution of spiral bands via hydrostatic balance adjustment, and provides some valuable insights into the formation of distant spiral rainbands.     

STATISTICAL AND COMPOSITE ANALYSIS OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF CONVECTIVE CORES AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TBB WITHIN THE TROPICAL CYCLONE CIRCULATION AND ITS INTENSITY

Based on the data(including radius of maximum winds) from the JTWC(Joint Typhoon Warning Center),the tropical cyclones(TCs) radii of the outermost closed isobar, TCs best tracks from Shanghai Typhoon Institute and the Black Body Temperature(TBB) of the Japanese geostationary meteorological satellite M1 TR IR1, and combining13 tropical cyclones which landed in China again after visiting the island of Taiwan during the period from 2001 to2010, we analyzed the relationship between the number of convective cores within TC circulation and the intensity of TC with the method of convective-stratiform technique(CST) and statistical and composite analysis. The results are shown as follows:(1) The number of convective cores in the entire TC circulation is well corresponding with the outer spiral rainbands and the density of convective cores in the inner core area increases(decreases) generally with increasing(decreasing) TC intensity. At the same time, the number of convective cores within the outer spiral rainbands is more than that within the inner core and does not change much with the TC intensity. However, the density of convective cores within the outer spiral rainbands is lower than that within the inner core.(2) The relationship described above is sensitive to landing location to some extent but not sensitive to the structure of TC.(3) The average value of TBB in the inner core area increases(decreases) generally with increasing(decreasing) of TC intensity, which is also sensitive to landing situation to some extent. At the same time, the average value of TBB within the outer spiral rainbands is close to that within the entire TC circulation, and both of them are more than that within the inner core. However, they do not reflect TC intensity change significantly.(4) The results of statistical composite based on convective cores and TBB are complementary with each other, so a combination of both can reflect the relationship between TC rainbands and TC intensity much better.     

西北太平洋台风同心眼墙影响因子的初步分析

利用美国威斯康星大学气象卫星研究合作院提供的集成微波图像资料和联合台风预警中心的最佳路径资料,普查2005—2014年西北太平洋地区具有同心眼墙结构的35个强台风个例。对比分析了有、无同心眼墙及同心眼墙生成快、慢的样本的环境场和自身初始结构差异。结果表明:环境场要素对同心眼墙形成与否具有重要调制作用,环境场相对湿度越大,海温越高,同心眼墙越易生成;而同心眼墙的形成速率与自身结构存在密切关系,初始涡旋尺度越大,同心眼墙生成越快,外眼墙位置距离台风中心越远,眼墙替换时间越长,眼墙替换前后强度变化越明显。     

利用TMI反演的水汽凝结物对热带气旋潜热结构分布的探索研究

本文利用热带测雨卫星TRMM（Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission）微波成像仪TMI（TRMM Microwave Imager）2A12 水汽凝结物（Hydrometeor）反演资料,对西北太平洋地区从1998～2009 年的236 个热带气旋个例的1776 个“快照”（snapshot）的水汽凝结物的结构特征进行了分析,并探讨了水汽凝结物的时空变化与热带气旋强度演变联系。研究结果表明:（1）TMI 2A12 水汽凝结物资料显示出了热带气旋内部的细致结构及变化特征,水汽凝结物的峰值集中于数十公里到一百多公里的热带气旋眼壁及云墙区;在热带气旋发展过程中,随着热带气旋强度的增强,水汽凝结物增多且往其中心靠拢,从发展阶段到成熟阶段,水汽凝结物的大值中心基本上集中在距离热带气旋中心约50 km 区域,而且强度越强的热带气旋,水汽凝结物的大值中心与热带气旋中心的距离越近;在热带气旋消亡的过程中,水汽凝结物不断减弱且往外围扩散,逐渐扩展到远离中心的区域;（2）热带气旋强度与水汽凝结物的分布关系密切,热带气旋强度变化与热带气旋中心附近200 km 范围内的水汽凝结物含量存在显著的正相关,而200 km 以外的外围水汽凝结物含量存在负相关;（3）热带气旋强度变化与水汽凝结物的变化存在时间差,水汽凝结物的变化超前于热带气旋强度的变化,在热带气旋迅速发展之前数小时,热带气旋中心0～50 km 环状区域的水汽凝结物含量就已经提前增加了,在热带气旋减弱前数小时到十数小时,即使热带气旋还处于它强度的鼎盛时期,其中心0～50 km 环状区域的水汽凝结物含量就已经提前显著减少了,这种水汽凝结物的变化超前于热带气旋强度的变化的现象,可能是热带气旋强度预报的潜在线索。     

Current understanding of tropical cyclone structure and intensity changes – a review

Summary Current understanding of tropical cyclone (TC) structure and intensity changes has been reviewed in this article. Recent studies in this area tend to focus on two issues: (1) what factors determine the maximum potential intensity (MPI) that a TC can achieve given the thermodynamic state of the atmosphere and the ocean? and (2) what factors prevent the TCs from reaching their MPIs? Although the MPI theories appear mature, recent studies of the so-called superintensity pose a potential challenge. It is notable that the maximum intensities reached by real TCs in all ocean basins are generally lower than those inferred from the theoretical MPI, indicating that internal dynamics and external forcing from environmental flow prohibit the TC intensification most and limit the TC intensity. It remains to be seen whether such factors can be included in improved MPI approaches.Among many limiting factors, the unfavorable environmental conditions, especially the vertical shear-induced asymmetry in the inner core region and the cooling of sea surface due to the oceanic upwelling under the eyewall region, have been postulated as the primary impediment to a TC reaching its MPI. However, recent studies show that the mesoscale processes, which create asymmetries in the TC core region, play key roles in TC structure and intensity changes. These include the inner and outer spiral rainbands, convectively coupled vortex Rossby waves, eyewall cycles, and embedded mesovortices in TC circulation. It is also through these inner core processes that the external environmental flow affects the TC structure and intensity changes. It is proposed that future research be focused on improving the understanding of how the eyewall processes respond to all external forcing and affect the TC structure and intensity changes. Rapid TC intensity changes (both strengthening and weakening) are believed to involve complex interactions between different scales and to be worthy of future research.The boundary-layer processes are crucial to TC formation, maintenance, and decaying. Significant progress has been made to deduce the drag coefficient on high wind conditions from the measurements of boundary layer winds in the vicinity of hurricane eyewalls by Global Positioning System (GPS) dropsondes. This breakthrough can lead to reduction of the uncertainties in the calculation of surface fluxes, thus improving TC intensity forecast by numerical weather prediction models.     

Influences of Different PBL Schemes on Secondary Eyewall Formation and Eyewall Replacement Cycle in Simulated Typhoon Sinlaku (2008)

The effects of different planetary boundary layer (PBL) processes on the secondary eyewall formation (SEF) and eyewall replacement cycle (ERC) in Typhoon Sinlaku (2008) are investigated by using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model with six different PBL schemes. The SEF and ERC have been successfully simulated with all the six PBL schemes and the mechanism for the SEF and ERC proposed in our previous study has been reconfirmed. It is demonstrated that both the intensification of the storm and the inward-moving outer spiral rainband contribute to the SEF. After the SEF, the associated diabatic heating enhances the secondary eyewall further, and the transfer of moist air from outer region to the primary eyewall is cut off by the secondary eyewall. In such a way, the primary eyewall dies and an ERC completes. It is found that some simulated features of the SEF and ERC, such as the time and location of the SEF and duration of the ERC, do vary from one simulation to another. In order to describe the features of the SEF and ERC quantitatively, a concentric eyewall index (CEI) is defined and a threshold of the CEI is suggested to determine the onset of the secondary eyewall. The differences in the simulated SEF and ERC are discussed and some possible causes are suggested. In addition, based on the CEI threshold and the conservation law of angular momentum, a formula to predict the location of SEF is also proposed and applied to all the six simulations. The success and failure of the formula are then discussed.     

大涡技术对模拟台风眼墙替换过程的影响

眼墙替换是影响台风强度和内核结构的一种重要过程。本研究在高分辨率的数值理想试验中加入大涡模拟技术,对比分析大涡模拟对眼墙替换过程的影响。结果表明:大涡模拟的加入使得模拟台风的强度和边界层入流增强。整个眼墙替换过程共用时约20～22 h,但大涡模拟试验中外眼墙形成更迅速,同时强度和上升运动偏弱。外眼墙完全取代内眼墙之后的台风强度超过替换过程之前的强度。此外,使用大涡技术可以更好地模拟出眼墙替换过程中内外眼墙之间的moat区下沉运动,结构特征与前人观测中所发现的结构特征一致。因此,在台风数值研究中引入大涡模拟技术,有助于更好地模拟眼墙替换过程中的台风结构特征和变化。     

Sensitivity of the simulation of tropical cyclone size to microphysics schemes

The sensitivity of the simulation of tropical cyclone(TC) size to microphysics schemes is studied using the Advanced Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting Model(WRF). Six TCs during the 2013 western North Pacific typhoon season and three mainstream microphysics schemes–Ferrier(FER), WRF Single-Moment 5-class(WSM5) and WRF Single-Moment6-class(WSM6)–are investigated. The results consistently show that the simulated TC track is not sensitive to the choice of microphysics scheme in the early simulation, especially in the open ocean. However, the sensitivity is much greater for TC intensity and inner-core size. The TC intensity and size simulated using the WSM5 and WSM6 schemes are respectively higher and larger than those using the FER scheme in general, which likely results from more diabatic heating being generated outside the eyewall in rainbands. More diabatic heating in rainbands gives higher inflow in the lower troposphere and higher outflow in the upper troposphere, with higher upward motion outside the eyewall. The lower-tropospheric inflow would transport absolute angular momentum inward to spin up tangential wind predominantly near the eyewall, leading to the increment in TC intensity and size(the inner-core size, especially). In addition, the inclusion of graupel microphysics processes(as in WSM6) may not have a significant impact on the simulation of TC track, intensity and size.     

1992年AndreW飓风的中尺度特征

根据PSU-NCAR中尺度模式(MM5)对1992年Andrew飓风数值试验的高分辨率输出资料,分析了Andrew飓风的中尺度特征,研究飓风中的眼区、眼壁区及螺旋性雨带区不同的热力学和动力学结构.轴对称的物理量分布展现了眼壁区区别于眼区和螺旋性雨带区的动力学特征,非对称的物理量分布则表明眼壁区的强风暴天气发生在飓风的西北侧区域,揭示了飓风眼壁区的强倾斜上升气流与外围的螺旋性雨带具有不同发展机制的天气学概念模型.     

Lightning Activity and Precipitation Characteristics of Typhoon Molave （2009） Around Its Landfall

Cloud-to-ground （CG） lightning data,storm intensity and track data,and the data from a Doppler radar and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission （TRMM） satellite,are used to analyze the temporal and spatial characteristics of lightning activity in Typhoon Molave （0906） during different periods of its landfall （pre-landfall,landfall,and post-landfall）.Parameters retrieved from the radar and the satellite are used to compare precipitation structures of the inner and outer rainbands of the typhoon,and to investigate possible causes of the different lightning characteristics.The results indicate that lightning activity was stronger in the outer rainbands than in the eyewall and inner rainbands.Lightning mainly occurred to the left （rather than ＂right＂ as in previous studies of US cases） of the moving typhoon,indicating a significant spatial asymmetry.The maximum lightning frequency in the tropical cyclone （TC） eyewall region was ahead of that in the whole TC region,and the outbreaks of eyewall lightning might indicate deepening of the cyclone.Stronger lightning in the outer rainbands is found to be associated with stronger updraft,higher concentrations of rain droplets and large ice particles at elevated mixed-phase levels,and the higher and broader convective clouds in the outer rainbands.Due to the contribution of large cloud nuclei,lightning intensity in the outer rainbands has a strong positive correlation with radar reflectivity.The ratio of positive CG lightning in the outer rainbands reached its maximum 1 h prior to occurrence of the maximum typhoon intensity at 2000 Beijing Time （BT） 18 July 2009.During the pre-landfall period （0300 BT 18 July-0050 BT 19 July）,the typhoon gradually weakened,but strong lightning still appeared.After the typhoon made landfall at 0050 BT 19 July,CG lightning density rapidly decreased,but the ratio of positive lightning increased.Notably,after the landfall of the outer rainbands at 2325 BT 18 July （approximately 1.5 h prior to the landfall of the TC）,significantly higher ice particle density derived from the TRMM data was observed in the outer rainbands,which,together with strengthened convection resulted from the local surface roughness effect,might have caused the enhanced lightning in the outer rainbands around the landfall of Molave.     

强台风Chanchu（0601）的数值研究：转向前后内核结构和强度变化

使用FY卫星TBB资料和新一代非静力中尺度模式WRF分析南海强台风Chanchu(0601)"急翘"转向前后内核结构和强度变化过程。结果表明:转向后内核结构非对称特征明显。WRF数值模式较好地模拟出Chanchu强度和异常路径变化过程,再现了内核结构演变:转向前,垂直切变较弱,有利于快速加强,内核结构较为对称;转向后,垂直切变明显增大,强回波位于垂直切变下风方向的左侧,显示为内核非对称结构。使用傅立叶变换方法分解模拟结果中的雷达回波,发现眼壁和内螺旋雨带的2波非对称沿方位角移速与涡旋罗斯贝波(VRWs)的理论波速一致,Chanchu快速加强过程中断和强度维持的可能原因为:眼壁传播的VRWs受到外螺旋雨带的扰动以及涡旋倾斜加剧引起眼壁非对称性加强导致"急翘"时眼壁破裂,此后眼区和眼壁区水平混合过程加强,850 hPa眼区相当位温明显增加,抑制高层相对暖干空气和低层相对冷湿空气相互交换,使得随眼壁内侧下沉气流向下输送的暖干空气减少,低层增温作用减弱,快速加强过程中断;VRWs径向内传导致高值涡度由眼壁内侧向眼心传播,引起最大风速半径(RMW)内侧切向风速增大,RMW随时间向眼心延伸,眼壁进一步收缩,一定程度上抵消了垂直切变加大的负面影响,Chanchu维持强度。     

Determination of the effect of initial inner-core structure on tropical cyclone intensification and track on a beta plane

The sensitivity of TC intensification and track to the initial inner-core structure on a β plane is investigated using a numerical model. The results show that the vortex with large inner-core winds(CVEX-EXP) experiences an earlier intensification than that with small inner-core winds(CCAVE-EXP), but they have nearly the same intensification rate after spin-up. In the early stage, the convective cells associated with surface heat flux are mainly confined within the inner-core region in CVEXEXP, whereas the vortex in CCAVE-EXP exhibits a considerably asymmetric structure with most of the convective vortices being initiated to the northeast in the outer-core region due to the β effect. The large inner-core inertial stability in CVEX-EXP can prompt a high efficiency in the conversion from convective heating to kinetic energy. In addition, much stronger straining deformation and PBL imbalance in the inner-core region outside the primary eyewall ensue during the initial development stage in CVEX-EXP than in CCAVE-EXP, which is conducive to the rapid axisymmetrization and early intensification in CVEX-EXP. The TC track in CVEX-EXP sustains a northwestward displacement throughout the integration, whereas the TC in CCAVE-EXP undergoes a northeastward recurvature when the asymmetric structure is dominant. Due to the enhanced asymmetric convection to the northeast of the TC center in CCAVE-EXP, a pair of secondary gyres embedded within the large-scale primary β gyres forms, which modulates the ventilation flow and thus steers the TC to move northeastward.     

Identification and analysis of high-frequency oscillations in the eyewalls of tropical cyclones

High-frequency oscillations, with periods of about 2 hours, are first identified by applying wavelet analysis to observed minutely wind speeds around the eye and eyewall of tropical cyclones(TCs). Analysis of a model simulation of Typhoon Hagupit(2008) shows that the oscillations also occur in the TC intensity, vertical motion, convergence activity and air density around the eyewall. Sequences of oscillations in these variables follow a certain order.     

The Dynamical Characteristics and Wave Structure of Typhoon Rananim （2004）

Typhoon Rananim (2004) was one of the severest typhoons landfalling the Chinese mainland from 1996 to 2004. It brought serious damage and induced prodigious economical loss. Using a new generation of mesoscale model, named the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) modeling system, with 1.667 km grid horizontal spacing on the finest nested mesh, Rananim was successfully simulated in terms of track, intensity, eye, eyewall, and spiral rainbands. We compared the structures of Rananim to those of hurricanes in previous studies and observations to assess the validity of simulation. The three-dimensional (3D) dynamic and thermal structures of eye and eyewall were studied based on the simulated results. The focus was investigation of the characteristics of the vortex Rossby waves in the inner-core region. We found that the Rossby vortex waves propagate azimuthally upwind against the azimuthal mean tangential flow around the eyewall, and their period was longer than that of an air parcel moving within the azimuthal mean tangential flow. They also propagated outward against the boundary layer inflow of the azimuthal mean vortex. Futhermore, we studied the connection between the spiral potential vorticity (PV) bands and spiral rainbands, and found that the vortex Rossby waves played an important role in the formation process of spiral rainbands.     

热带气旋闪电活动特征研究综述

针对热带气旋（tropical cyclone,TC）闪电已有研究,首先从闪电活动分布特征、眼壁闪电爆发对TC强度和路径的指示、外雨带闪电活动与雨带对流结构的关系三个方面进行了总结;其次从动力一微物理方面对TC闪电的形成原因和特征机理进行了梳理;最后提出当前研究中存在的两个关键问题,并对后续研究内容进行了展望。基于地基和空基相结合的综合闪电探测得到的闪电属性特征参量,有望建立一个明确的、具有代表性的闪电活动一TC强度变化关系。利用沿海地区架设的三维闪电定位系统结合地基双偏振霄达,针对登陆台风强对流过程开展的综合观测研究,将有助于推进闪电观测资料在台风中小尺度强对流监测、预警和资料同化中的应用。     

Simulated Sensitivity of the Tropical Cyclone Eyewall Replacement Cycle to the Ambient Temperature Profile

In this study, the impacts of the environmental temperature profile on the tropical cyclone eyewall replacement cycle are examined using idealized numerical simulations. It is found that the environmental thermal condition can greatly affect the formation and structure of a secondary eyewall and the intensity change during the eyewall replacement cycle. Simulation with a warmer thermal profile produces a larger moat and a prolonged eyewall replacement cycle. It is revealed that the enhanced static stability greatly suppresses convection, and thus causes slow secondary eyewall formation. The possible processes influencing the decay of inner eyewall convection are investigated. It is revealed that the demise of the inner eyewall is related to a choking effect associated with outer eyewall convection, the radial distribution of moist entropy fluxes within the moat region, the enhanced static stability in the inner-core region, and the interaction between the inner and outer eyewalls due to the barotropic instability. This study motivates further research into how environmental conditions influence tropical cyclone dynamics and thermodynamics.     

台风利奇马(1909)双眼墙特征及长时间维持机制

利用CIMSS微波卫星产品和多普勒天气雷达资料,分析超强台风利奇马(1909)的长时间双眼墙特征,并采用集合卡尔曼滤波方法同化雷达径向风资料,诊断利奇马双眼墙的三维结构演变特征.结果 表明:在双眼墙演变过程初期,受强垂直风切变和中高层干空气入侵的影响,外眼墙对流减弱,呈非对称特征.Sawyer-Eliassen方程诊断...     

Vertical structure and microphysical characteristics of Typhoon Kompasu (2010) at landfall

The vertical structure and microphysics of Typhoon Kompasu that caused a lot of damage associated with strong winds and heavy rainfall over the Seoul metropolitan area on 1～2 September 2010 were examined primarily from wind profiler measurements. Four different periods that represent a stratiform, outer rainband, inner rainband, and eyewall region during passage of Typhoon Kompasu from 1200 to 2300 UTC 1 September were selected based on bright band intensities and vertical profiles of radar reflectivities and Doppler velocities. The bright band signatures observed in all of these periods indicated that the structure of Kompasu was basically stratiform in a weakening phase. Maximum rainfall rates up to 50 mm hr^?1 at the surface and mean wind speeds greater than 30 m s^?1 in the 2–4 km layer were observed in the eyewall region. Unlike the other regions that showed nearly zero vertical air motions or weak downdrafts below a melting layer, a mean updraft of ～1 m s^?1 was analyzed only in the eyewall region, which suggests that the updrafts may have enhanced drop growth that led to increasing surface rainfall rates. For each region, the vertical mean characteristics of rainfall parameters retrieved from wind profiler spectra below the melting layer were also examined. The rain properties between the inner and outer rainband were similar although they were apart with a distance of more than 100 km (> 2 hrs in time). The averaged mass-weighted mean diameters within the rainbands were larger than those in the stratiform and eyewall regions. A weaker bright band in the eyewall region suggests the presence of a relatively larger number of rimed particles associated with the updrafts around the melting layer. A stronger bright band was present in the rainbands, which indicates more active aggregation right above the melting layer.     

0709号超强台风圣帕(Sepat)的闪电活动特征

利用全球闪电定位网 (WWLLN) 获取的闪电定位资料和中国气象局 (CMA) 提供的台风定位资料, 分析了2007年第9号超强台风圣帕的闪电时空演变特征。分析结果表明: 在热带低压至强热带风暴时期, 台风中心闪电活动频繁, 外围闪电少; 台风成熟时期, 呈现明显的三圈结构; 减弱消散时期, 中心闪电骤减, 几乎为零, 外围闪电密度远远超过中心闪电密度。眼壁闪电和台风总闪电存在阶段性变化。在台风中心最大风速急剧增大的阶段, 眼壁上的闪电两次爆发, 而在第二次眼壁闪电爆发后的两个小时, 中心风速达到最大值, 表明闪电活动有可能对台风增强有指示意义。台风眼壁置换是台风强度发生变化的一个转折点, 也是台风闪电活动发生变化的一个转折点, 从台风眼壁置换开始, 眼壁上闪电数接近于零。闪电次数跟云顶亮温存在显著性相关。结合热带测雨计划任务卫星 (TRMM) 上装载的闪电成像仪 (LIS) 和微波辐射计 (TMI) 资料, 进一步对比分析了台风闪电与强对流区域的关系, 发现闪电易发生在修正极化亮温低于225 K的深对流系统中, 但并不是所有的深对流中都能探测到闪电的发生。WWLLN和LIS探测到闪电发生区域基本一致。