Grid-group cultural theory: an introduction

This article offers an introduction to grid-group cultural theory (also known as grid-group analysis, Cultural Theory or theory of socio-cultural viability), an approach that has been developed over the past thirty years in the work of the British anthropologists Mary Douglas and Michael Thompson, the American political scientist Aaron Wildavsky, and many others. This assessment begins with a presentation of the main claims of the theory, distinguishing two characteristic breads of grid-group cultural theory, in the one it is conceived as a heuristic device, in the other it is seen as a full explanatory theory. This brief is followed by a discussion of the typology generated by the theory. This includes a presentation of the two dimensions of sociality it posits, the cultural map they produce, as well as the four (or five) cultural types derived from them and their designations. The article proceeds with a discussion of key issues including the incorporation of other typologies (such as the one developed to analyse myths of nature), the relations between cultures or rationalities and several methodological issues. Finally the article introduces the contributions to this special issue of the GeoJournal. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A political-cultural map of Europe. Family structures and the origins of differences between national political cultures in the European Union

Differences between the national political cultures of the European states are puzzling. They are too often taken for granted or treated as an elusive explanation for residual differences that can not be accounted for in comparative politics. Here they are put at the core of a comparative analysis. This article explores the origins of differences between national political cultures. It deals with national political cultures from the perspective of Cultural Theory or grid-group analysis. A national political culture is conceived as a ‘conversation’ between subcultures associated to national political institutions and practices (and not as an aggregated pattern of individual orientations toward political objects). National political cultures can be characterised on the basis of ideal typical patterns of relations between the basic cultures or rationalities distinguished by Cultural Theory. After an assessment of the differences between the national political cultures of the Member States of the European Union, the paper considers traditional family structures as possible sources of differentiation, elaborating upon the work of the French political historian Emmanuel Todd who has documented the correspondence between the geography of traditional family structures and the geography of ideologies in Europe. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A watershed on the Rhine: Changing approaches to international environmental cooperation

Since the 1950s, the governments of the riparian countries of the Rhine have attempted to protect the ecosystems of the river basin through international cooperation. Before 1987, their relations were unproductive and antagonistic. International programs for the protection of Rhine were far less effective than domestic policies. From 1987 onwards, international cooperation on the protection of the Rhine has been exemplary, and has led the way in domestic and international water protection policies. Many existing frameworks of international relations are not able to offer an adequate account of this wholesale change. In this article, an attempt is undertaken with the help of grid-group theory. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Political culture: a typology grounded on Cultural Theory

Political culture is an attractive concept to characterize the specific preferences regarding politics in different political communities. However, it is a blurred concept because of the confusion between patterns of individual values and collective culture at the one hand, and the disputable separation between orientations and practices at the other hand. This contribution explores the potential of Cultural Theory, also called the Theory of Sociocultural Viability, to analyze political culture. This theory postulates the existence of four viable ways of life, which are patterns of social interactions and rationalizations reinforcing each other. Each way of life offers a partial explanation of reality and therefore reaches out for cultural allies who can compensate for its weakness. Such an alliance, generally between two ways of life, can be quite stable and therefore determines to a large degree the nature and the stability of the political institutions of a country. The political culture of a political community can be characterized by the proportion of adherents of each way of life (its regime), and by the predominant alliance of two ways of life.     

黑河中游甘州区居民文化类型及其对自然环境的认知

人的行为受文化价值观影响, 辨明居民不同文化类型及影响因素, 探讨不同文化类型居民的自然环境认知特征, 无疑是人地系统中人文因素作用研究的基础性问题.综述了文化人类学中格-群文化理论及其在不同领域的广泛应用; 开发调查问卷并对甘州区进行了实证调查, 初步判定了15个乡镇居民不同文化类型的比例, 分析了年龄、 教育程度、 收入等因素对文化类型的影响, 验证了甘州区各文化类型居民对自然环境认知的特征与理论分析的相符程度.结果表明: 在三类判定准则下, 甘州区居民文化类型有效判定比例分别为总调查样本的30.94%, 30.39%及54.70%, 各种文化类型比例由高到低分别为宿命论者、 等级主义者、 个人主义者与平均主义者.年龄等居民个体特征因素对文化类型的影响符合理论假设, 可初步解释居民不同文化类型的形成.实际调查获得的不同文化类型居民对自然环境的认知特征及偏好, 符合格-群文化理论对各文化类型居民的理论分析假设, 这验证了格-群文化理论在西北干旱区内陆河流域的适用与有效性.在此基础上探讨了关注居民文化类型差异对自然资源管理政策制定和实施的借鉴意义.     

Fore-arc evolution and continental growth: a general model

The extended evolution of fore-arc regions which leads to their eventual incorporation into stable kratonic continental crust is elucidated by a general model based upon observations from the modern circum-Pacific and the Palaeozoic Tasman Geosyncline.Fore-arc regions widen during subduction in the manner described by Karig & Sharman (1975). Their history, after subduction has ceased, depends upon the thickness of the accretionary prism formed during subduction. Where the prism is thick (ca. 20 km) kratonization is a single-step process. The fore-arc region remains above sea-level; post-arc silicic volcanics accumulate due to granitoid plutonism, the magmas being derived by melting of the subduction complex and from the oceanic lithosphere trapped beneath it. The volcanic arc subsides, becoming the site of a fore-deep.Intermediate-thickness accretionary prisms (ca. 16 km) are kratonized in a two-step process. They remain at shelf depths, while their associated volcanic arcs sink to comparable depths. Both acquire a post-arc shallow marine sequence of typical platform-cover facies. They are then deformed and intruded by granitoids when the crust attains critical thickness (ca. 20 km).Thin accretionary prisms (≤ 12 km) require a three-step process for kratonization. They and their associated arcs sink to bathyal depths. They are overwhelmed by prograding post-arc flysch deposits of continental origin. Deformation of the post-arc flysch and plutonism occur when critical crustal thickness (ca. 20 km) is attained. A transitional tectonic regime ensues, with molasse-like transitional basins preferentially sited over the extinct volcanic arcs and the thinner parts of buried accretionary prisms.The model satisfactorily explains the Late Proterozoic-Palaeozoic evolution of southeast Australia, where a 1000 km wide tract of continental crust was accreted to the Australian Kraton in 250–300 Ma, beginning as a S.W. Pacific-type oceanic terrain. It has been found useful for interpreting geosynclinal terrains in other continents.According to the model, the dynamic processes that contribute to kratonization are systematically causally connected. Kratonization is a unified, internally deterministic and self-sustaining phenomenon. The model has implications for the origin, ‘stratigraphy’ and composition of upper and lower continental crust; the origins and tectonic settings of ophiolites, granitoids, paired metamorphic belts and transitional basins; and for the nature and causes of orogenesis.     

砂土有限特征比模型演化规律与参数试验分析

基于有限特征比理论(FCRT),针对构建的FCRT模型,通过试验寻求砂土变形演化规律及模型参数值;该模型理论计算与试验结果对比表明,二者具有很好的一致性,模型客观合理地描述了传统理论模型难以描述的客观现象—不同内部颗粒尺寸、而相同外部尺寸,砂样的不同变形特征,诸如应力等条件一定时,较粗颗粒砂样应变较大。     

A political cultural map of Europe. A survey approach

The existence of culture is far less contested than the ways in which one can conceptualize, theorize and measure it. Grid-group theory is a typological contribution to the field of political culture. It identifies one dimension of individuality (grid) and one dimension of social incorporation (group). Combined, these dimensions demarcate four omnipresent and interdependent cultures - hierarchy, egalitarianism, individualism and fatalism - each of which interlocks a social pattern with a type of cultural bias. The overall political cultural configuration of a country is determined by the given combination of the four cultures, each of whose size can be measured by the number of adherents. The estimated configurations of twelve European countries are obtained by analyzing two waves of the World Values Study in 1981 and 1990 (N=34,858). The results show that egalitarianism is dominant in the Nordic countries and the Netherlands, whereas fatalism is dominant in Great Britain, Ireland and southern Europe. Further analysis confirms the hypothesized correspondance between egalitarianism and Inglehart's concept of postmaterialism, both of which, in turn, are related to proenvironmental concern. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Sr evolution in the West Greenland-Labrador craton: a model for early Rb depletion in the mantle

A model for Sr evolution in the West Greenland-Labrador region is proposed based on the available data for granitic gneisses ranging in age from 3.6 AE to 1.9 AE and for recent continental tholeiites from West Greenland. The evolution of initial Sr isotopic composition is consistent with a two-stage model for the mantle in this area with a constant Rb/Sr ratio of 0.014 ± 0.002 from ～ 4.45 AE through the present. The model suggests the mantle may have been depleted in Rb ～ 4.45 AE ago if the Earth was originally chondritic with respect to Rb and Sr. This age of differentiation is consistent with recently proposed terrestrial differentiation based on Pb Pb analyses of ancient Amîtsoq gneiss feldspars (～4.47 AE, Gancarz and Wasserburg, 1977). A linear regression of the gneisses, if extrapolated to the present, predicts the present value of Sr⁸⁷/Sr⁸⁶ of the mantle in this area to be 0.7034 ± 0.0003 which is the measured Sr isotopic composition of the recent Svartenhuk tholeiites. Various implications of the model with respect to early Earth history, mantle evolution and pre-emplacement histories of gneissic suites are discussed.     

The diffusional evolution of chemical composition in a solar model

We consider the basic physical processes resulting in a differential, microscopic redistribution of stellar matter, generally known as diffusion. The main effect of diffusion in the solar interior is a segregation of light and heavy elements in the gravitational field. As a result, the abundance of helium and heavy elements in the solar envelope is reduced, while it becomes enriched by hydrogen. We present estimates of the degree of settling for a sequence of evolutionary models via numerical solution of the generalized diffusion equation. The effect of the ion charge (in the approximation of full ionization) on the settling rate is studied in detail. Abundance variations are given for the centers of the models, as well as for the convective envelope of the modern Sun. We analyze the effects of the thermal and concentrational diffusion on the evolution of the chemical-composition profile. Quantitatively, the effect of thermal diffusion is not very large, but it leads to the appearance of new features in the hydrogen-abundance profile, namely, a discontinuity at the base of the convective zone. The effect of concentration diffusion is relatively small, and is appreciable only at the model center at late stages of the evolution, and also close to the base of the convective envelope. All the mechanisms studied are necessary components of a modern model for the internal structure and evolution of the Sun.     

A Cordilleran model for the evolution of Avalonia

Striking similarities between the late Mesoproterozoic–Early Paleozoic record of Avalonia and the Late Paleozoic–Cenozoic history of western North America suggest that the North American Cordillera provides a modern analogue for the evolution of Avalonia and other peri-Gondwanan terranes during the late Precambrian. Thus: (1) The evolution of primitive Avalonian arcs (proto-Avalonia) at 1.2–1.0 Ga coincides with the amalgamation of Rodinia, just as the evolution of primitive Cordilleran arcs in Panthalassa coincided with the Late Paleozoic amalgamation of Pangea. (2) The development of mature oceanic arcs at 750–650 Ma (early Avalonian magmatism), their accretion to Gondwana at ca. 650 Ma, and continental margin arc development at 635–570 Ma (main Avalonian magmatism) followed the breakup of Rodinia at ca. 755 Ma in the same way that the accretion of mature Cordilleran arcs to western North America and the development of the main phase of Cordilleran arc magmatism followed the Early Mesozoic breakup of Pangea. (3) In the absence of evidence for continental collision, the diachronous termination of subduction and its transition to an intracontinental wrench regime at 590–540 Ma is interpreted to record ridge–trench collision in the same way that North America's collision with the East Pacific Rise in the Oligocene led to the diachronous initiation of a transform margin. (4) The separation of Avalonia from Gondwana in the Early Ordovician resembles that brought about in Baja California by the Pliocene propagation of the East Pacific Rise into the continental margin. (5) The Late Ordovician–Early Silurian sinistral accretion of Avalonia to eastern Laurentia emulates the Cenozoic dispersal of Cordilleran terranes and may mimic the paths of future terranes transferred to the Pacific plate.This close similarity in tectonothermal histories suggests that a geodynamic coupling like that linking the evolution of the Cordillera with the assembly and breakup of Pangea, may have existed between Avalonia and the late Precambrian supercontinent Rodinia. Hence, the North American Cordillera is considered to provide an actualistic model for the evolution of Avalonia and other peri-Gondwanan terranes, the histories of which afford a proxy record of supercontinent assembly and breakup in the late Precambrian.     

Tectonic evolution of the Montagne Noire (french Massif Central): a model of extensional gneiss dome

Abstract

The tertonic interpretation of the Montagne Noire Gneiss Dome (southern French II Massif (Central) has been controversial for a long time. Several models have been proposed : diapirie uplift, wreneching and diapirism, compressive anticline, and metamorphie core complex. Evidence for extensional tectonics in the French Varisean Belt favours the latter interpretation. Strain and metamorphism patterns in the eastern part of the Montagne Noire result from two successive extensional deformations during Late Carboniferous to Permian times. The occurrence of a major detachment zone along the northern edge of the Montagne Noire Gneiss Dome as well the presence of sedimentary) basias to the north point to the asymmetry) of the Stephanian-Permian extensional system. We propose a new model of gneiss dome involving isostatie uprising and consecutive tectonic denudation of the duetile lower crust. This process results in asymmetrical extensional systems characterized by roll-under folding of the footwall and development of basins in the hangingwall as in the Montagne Noire. The model is finally discussed in comparison to previous interpretations.     

Crustal memory and basin evolution in the Central European Basin System—new insights from a 3D structural model

The Central European Basin System (CEBS) is composed of a series of subbasins, the largest of which are (1) the Norwegian–Danish Basin (2), the North German Basin extending westward into the southern North Sea and (3) the Polish Basin. A 3D structural model of the CEBS is presented, which integrates the thickness of the crust below the Permian and five layers representing the Permian–Cenozoic sediments. Structural interpretations derived from the 3D model and from backstripping are discussed with respect to published seismic data. The analysis of structural relationships across the CEBS suggests that basin evolution was controlled to a large degree by the presence of major zones of crustal weakness. The NW–SE-striking Tornquist Zone, the Ringkøbing-Fyn High (RFH) and the Elbe Fault System (EFS) provided the borders for the large Permo–Mesozoic basins, which developed along axes parallel to these fault systems. The Tornquist Zone, as the most prominent of these zones, limited the area affected by Permian–Cenozoic subsidence to the north. Movements along the Tornquist Zone, the margins of the Ringkøbing-Fyn High and the Elbe Fault System could have influenced basin initiation. Thermal destabilization of the crust between the major NW–SE-striking fault systems, however, was a second factor controlling the initiation and subsidence in the Permo–Mesozoic basins. In the Triassic, a change of the regional stress field caused the formation of large grabens (Central Graben, Horn Graben, Glückstadt Graben) perpendicular to the Tornquist Zone, the Ringkøbing-Fyn High and the Elbe Fault System. The resulting subsidence pattern can be explained by a superposition of declining thermal subsidence and regional extension. This led to a dissection of the Ringkøbing-Fyn High, resulting in offsets of the older NW–SE elements by the younger N–S elements. In the Late Cretaceous, the NW–SE elements were reactivated during compression, the direction of which was such that it did not favour inversion of N–S elements. A distinct change in subsidence controlling factors led to a shift of the main depocentre to the central North Sea in the Cenozoic. In this last phase, N–S-striking structures in the North Sea and NW–SE-striking structures in The Netherlands are reactivated as subsidence areas which are in line with the direction of present maximum compression. The Moho topography below the CEBS varies over a wide range. Below the N–S-trending Cenozoic depocentre in the North Sea, the crust is only 20 km thick compared to about 30 km below the largest part of the CEBS. The crust is up to 40 km thick below the Ringkøbing-Fyn High and up to 45 km along the Teisseyre–Tornquist Zone. Crustal thickness gradients are present across the Tornquist Zone and across the borders of the Ringkøbing-Fyn High but not across the Elbe Fault System. The N–S-striking structural elements are generally underlain by a thinner crust than the other parts of the CEBS.The main fault systems in the Permian to Cenozoic sediment fill of the CEBS are located above zones in the deeper crust across which a change in geophysical properties as P-wave velocities or gravimetric response is observed. This indicates that these structures served as templates in the crustal memory and that the prerift configuration of the continental crust is a major controlling factor for the subsequent basin evolution.     

Fourier analysis of bivalve outlines: Implications on evolution and autecology

Fourier analysis of shape provides a unique means of studying morphologic variation of bivalves, especially in terms of their evolution and autecology. Amplitude spectra resulting from analysis may be refined, summarized, and further evaluated by a series of statistical measures designed to extract the maximum amount of information from outline features. Root mean square error comparison of harmonics, combined with a modified analysis of variance design and Snedecor's F-test, permits identification of significant amplitudes. Intra- and interspecific variation may be expressed as variance about mean power estimates derived from significant amplitudes for each species. Variance estimates of 14 species of heterodont bivalves indicate that venerid bivalves show considerably more intraspecific shape variability than do tellinid species. In both groups, however, species characterized by more elongate shells show less intraspecific variability. Evolutionary and environmental implications of interspecific shape variance in bivalves suggest that future comprehensive examination of specimens, collected in situ, may be fruitful.     

CrystalMom: a new model for the evolution of crystal size distributions in magmas with the quadrature-based method of moments

Nucleation and growth of crystals, and the resulting crystal size distribution, play a fundamental role in controlling the physical properties of magmas and consequently the dynamics of the eruptions. In the past decades, laboratory experiments demonstrated that size and shape of crystals strongly control the physical properties of magma and lava. Additionally, natural and experimental samples are usually characterized in terms of their crystal size distribution to link it with physical processes that are not directly observable, such as cooling or decompression mechanisms. In this paper, we present CrystalMoM, a new predictive model, based on the quadrature-based method of moments, developed for studying the kinetic of crystallization in volcanic systems. The quadrature-based method of moments, well established in the field of chemical engineering, represents a mesoscale modelling approach that rigorously simulates the space–time evolution of a distribution of particles, by considering its moments. The method is applied here, for the first time, for studying the equilibrium/disequilibrium crystallization in magma, modelling the temporal evolution of the moments of a crystal size distribution. The model, verified against numerical and experimental data, represents a valuable tool to infer the cooling and decompression rates from the crystal size distribution observed in natural samples.     

Surface evolution of dissolving minerals investigated with a kinetic Ising model

In natural weathering systems, both the chemistry and the topography of mineral surfaces change as rocks and minerals equilibrate to surface conditions. Most geochemical research has focused on changes in solution chemistry over time; however, temporal changes in surface topography may also yield information about rates and mechanisms of dissolution. We use stochastic dissolution simulations of a regular 2-D lattice with reaction mechanisms defined in terms of nearest neighbor interactions to elucidate how the surface area and reactivity of a crystal evolve during dissolution. Despite the simplicity of the model, it reproduces key features observed or inferred for mineral dissolution. Our model results indicate that: (i) dissolving surfaces reach a steady-state conformation after sufficient dissolution time, (ii) linear defects cause surface area and dissolution rate to vary in concert with one another, (iii) sigmoidal and non-sigmoidal rate vs. free-energy of reaction (ΔG_rxn) behavior can be rationalized in terms of the multiple steps occurring during dissolution, and (iv) surface roughness as a function of ΔG_rxn is highly sensitive to the reaction mechanism. When simulated times to reach steady-state are compared to published time series rate data using suitable scaling, good agreement is found for silicate minerals while the model significantly over-predicts the duration of the transient for Fe and Al oxides. The implication of our simple model is that many aspects of mineral dissolution behavior, including approach to steady-state, sigmoidal vs. non-sigmoidal rate vs. ΔG_rxn behavior, and development of rougher surfaces in conditions further from equilibrium can be explained by nearest neighbor interactions and simple Kossel-type models where reactivity of a surface is defined in terms of perfect surface, step, and kink sites.     

干旱条件下冲积扇的沉积构型和演化过程: 基于水槽模拟实验

利用延时相机以及3D激光扫描仪等设备,通过水槽实验获得了74组扇面地貌数据,并采用定量化的软件对这些数据进行了精细的沉积学分析,明确了干旱条件下冲积扇的沉积演化过程及其控制的沉积构型。研究表明: (1)干旱条件下冲积扇沉积演化过程中水动力、水流样式、扇体增生规律等均存在明显的差异性,根据这些差异将整个模拟实验分为早期、中期、晚期3个阶段。(2)实验早期,扇体水动力较强,主控沉积作用为片流沉积,根据片流沉积的分布范围,可将其分为整体片流沉积和局部片流沉积。(3)实验中期,扇体中远端水动力及扇面扩大速率均有所减小,主控沉积作用为非限定性水道,主要沉积体为朵体沉积,非限定性水道主要分布在近源端,而朵体主要分布在水道末端的开阔地带。(4)实验晚期,受巨大的扇体影响,水动力进一步减小,主控沉积作用为限定性水道沉积。(5)通过实验研究,建立了具有明显3层结构的干旱条件下冲积扇沉积构型模式,其中底层是片流朵体复合体、中层为非限制性水道与末端朵体复合体、顶层是水道和小型末端朵体复合体。     

运用文化理论和模糊网络分析评价黑河中游最优水资源管理风格

管理者的管理风格与环境相匹配是有效管理的关键. 采用模糊网络分析法和文化理论方法评价了黑河中游张掖市最优水资源管理风格. 以文化理论为基础, 采用理论分析法和频度分析法, 建立水资源管理风格评价指标体系. 运用网络层次分析法确定各项指标的权重; 基于网络层次分析法的计算结果, 运用模糊综合评价法对文化理论中提出的个人主义者、 宿命论者、 等级主义者和平均主义者4种风格进行实例研究, 依据分值大小进行排序. 结果表明: 等级主义者得分最高, 即为最优的管理风格. 因此, 在黑河中游水资源管理的过程中应主要实行等级主义者管理风格, 可为水资源管理部门分配人员、 选聘人才、 培训方向提供理论依据, 有助于提高水资源管理效率.