Droughts as a catalyst for water policy change. Analysis of Spain,Australia (MDB), and California

Droughts are natural hazards characterized by a prolonged period of below-average precipitation. Water scarcity is defined as insufficient water resources to meet demands in a region. This paper examines three regions (Spain, California, and the Murray-Darling Basin in Australia) which share similar social and climatic characteristics and face severe water-scarcity problems. The frequency and persistence of droughts in these regions over the last few decades have triggered changes in water laws as well as in the behaviour of water users and managers. This paper compares the major water reforms in these regions and the achievements and failures of the various approaches implemented. This comparison shows how, despite the differences in institutions and governance regarding water allocation in the three regions, recent droughts have catalysed the creation of institutions and the implementation of sophisticated long-term measures to mitigate the impact of future droughts. A deeper understanding of the effectiveness of mechanisms and regulations is necessary to better manage droughts since the uncertain impacts of climate change will require responses of a more effective nature.     

A Mediterranean derecho: Catalonia (Spain), 17th August 2003

At approximately 6:10 UTC in the morning of 17th August 2003, a squall line developed over south Catalonia (the northeast region of Spain). During the next 9 h, the squall moved rapidly northeast and crossed Catalonia and the French regions of Languedoc–Roussillon and Province, damaging and uprooting hundreds of trees and blocking trains in the region. Wind gusts reached were recoded up to 52 m/s with evidence of F2 intensity damage. This case study shows the characteristics of a derecho (widespread convectively induced windstorm).Radar observations of the evolving squall line show signatures often correlated with damaging surface winds, including:

a. Bow echoes,

b. Rear inflow notches,

c. Rear inflow jets,

d. Medium altitude radial convergence,

e. Narrow gradient of very marked reflectivity,

f. Development of isolated cells ahead of the convective line,

g. A band of convection off the northern end of the line known as a “warm advection wing”.

When examining the different surface observations, satellite, radar imagery and cloud-to-ground lightning data, this case shows many similarities to those investigated in the United States. The derecho is a hybrid case, but has many characteristics of warm season derechoes. This emanates from a mesoscale convective complex (MCC) moving along a quasi-stationary, low-level thermal boundary in an environment characterized by high potential instability and relatively strong mid-tropospheric winds.     

延安市能见度与相对湿度和PM_(2.5)及PM_(10)的关系

为分析延安市能见度与相对湿度、气溶胶质量浓度的关系,利用2016年延安大气成分站PM_(2.5)、PM_(10)和国家基本气象站相对湿度、能见度观测资料,对能见度与相对湿度、PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)的关系进行分析。结果表明:全年能见度与相对湿度的线性相关系数最高,与PM_(10)次之;随相对湿度的增大,能见度明显降低。相对湿度<50%时,能见度与PM_(2.5)的非线性相关性高于与PM_(10)的相关性;相对湿度>50%时,能见度与PM_(10)的非线性相关性则较PM_(2.5)好。相较于线性拟合方法,能见度与相对湿度的非线性拟合公式能更好地表现二者的关系。利用相对湿度、PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)观测数据对能见度做多元非线性拟合,检验结果表明,计算得出的拟合公式能较好地模拟延安市能见度的变化规律。