中国地理学视角的饮食文化研究回顾与展望

饮食文化是人类社会发展过程中，关于食物需求、生产和消费方面的文化现象，既包括人与自然的关系，也包括食物与人类社会的关系。地理学对饮食文化的研究强调饮食文化所反映的人地关系、地理环境对饮食文化的影响及饮食文化的地理分异规律等。在简要综述饮食文化的内涵和研究视角的基础上，从饮食文化的形成与变迁、饮食文化的区域分异、饮食文化的影响与比较、饮食文化的开发利用等方面回顾了地理学视角的饮食文化研究，认为地理学视角的饮食文化研究还处在起步和摸索阶段，研究内容与方法都需要进行深层次的分析与探讨。     

Feminist Geopolitics Revisited: Body Counts in Iraq*

Feminist geography and political geography still represent two solitudes within the discipline. While increased traffic between these different parts of the discipline points to a degree of intellectual engagement, there remains a paucity of feminist thought in political geography. This article examines recent scholarship on feminist political geography, with a view to applying its insights to the struggles to protest and end political violence. The concept of feminist geopolitics is employed and recast, both as a bridging concept between feminist and political geography and as an analytical approach that has political valence in the context of the war in Iraq. Feminist geopolitics is revisited in this article, but remains a critical analytic in relation to body counts and other casualties in war zones.     

DISARMING NATURE: CONVERTING MILITARY LANDS TO WILDLIFE REFUGES*

Since 1988 the United States has closed nearly two dozen major military installations and reclassified them as national wildlife refuges. By presenting a case study of one site of military‐to‐wildlife conversion, this article examines the formation of these places and the implications of casting military practices and environmental conservation as compatible activities. As lands where military and environmental attributes can be perceived as inseparable, military‐to‐wildlife sites exemplify hybrid geographies that challenge dualistic notions of nature and society.     

THE EVOLUTION OF SERVICE ECONOMIES: A GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE1

Of the several classifications of services, each emphasizes different characteristics. The International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) is used for a comparative study on the transformation into service economies of the U.S., Canada, Great Britain, France, West Germany, Italy and Japan. Service economies are defined as national economies in which employment in services surpassed that in manufacturing. The pace of the evolution of service economies has been rapid with North America leading, followed in order by Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan and West Germany. Service economies have important implications for urban growth, intercity competition, and international trade.     

THE U.S. MILITARY AS GEOGRAPHICAL AGENT: THE CASE OF COLD WAR ALASKA*

ABSTRACT. Alaska was strategically key to the U.S. defense plan during the cold war (1946–1989). As such, it was the scene of an enormous and sustained military investment, the effect of which was amplified by Alaska's undiversified economy, sparse development, small resident population, and marginalized political status at the beginning of the era. The strong military presence affected Alaskan demographics, economic development, and infrastructure and figured prominently in the admission of Alaska to the union in 1959. The high profile and long‐term presence of the U.S. military had such a dramatic affect on the course of Alaska that the result was tantamount to a “militarized landscape.”     

MAKING THE STRANGE FAMILIAR: GEOGRAPHICAL ANALOGY IN GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS*

ABSTRACT. In several publications in the 1950s, Donald Meinig raised two themes that are central to contemporary “critical geopolitics”: criticizing the idea of a determining global physical geography that directs global geopolitics, and suggesting that geographical labels and geopolitical concepts have political consequences. I take off from Meinig's insight about geopolitics as an active process of naming and acting by discussing the broad power of analogy in world politics and by examining recent use of two geographical analogies—the Macedonian syndrome and balkanization—as symptomatic of a wider process of making the strange familiar by recycling geographical analogies.     

SUSTAINING THE STEPPES: A GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF PASTORAL LAND USE IN MONGOLIA*

ABSTRACT. Recent shifts in Mongolia's politics and economy have changed pastoral land-use patterns and charged debate over how pasturelands are allocated and regulated in a market economy. Absent has been any detailed understanding of the historical geography of pastoral tenure and land-use patterns in Mongolia prior to the socialist era and the collectivization of livestock husbandry. An overview and case study of changing tenures and land-use patterns suggests that in prerevolutionary Mongolia wealth and poverty determined herders' mobility and access to pasture resources; no less is true today. Historical data also reveal dual formal and informal regulatory institutions extant in the past that coordinated patterns of seasonal movement. This amounted to an unofficial tenure system and has contributed to Mongolia's legacy of ecologically and socially sustainable pastoralism.     

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF HYDROPOLITICS: THE GEOGRAPHICAL SCALES OF WATER AND SECURITY IN THE INDUS BASIN*

ABSTRACT. The article identifies important themes and future research directions for analyzing water and conflict dynamics at the subnational scale in the Indus Basin. A historical overview of water development in the Indus Basin suggests that the water‐security nexus was always a salient theme in the minds of water developers, even in the nineteenth century. Conflicts over contemporary large‐scale water‐development projects in the Indian and Pakistani parts of the Indus Basin are reviewed. Engineers' single‐minded focus on megaprojects, to the neglect of the wider set of values that societies attach to water resources in the eastern and western Indus Basin are largely to blame for continuing low‐grade conflict in the basin. A review of local‐level conflicts over water supply and sanitation in Karachi and the distribution of irrigation water in Pakistani Punjab illustrates the critical role of governance and differential social power relations in accentuating conflict. The article argues against neo‐Malthusian assumptions about the inevitability of conflict over water because of its future absolute scarcity. Instead, the article seeks to demonstrate that, despite evidence suggesting that international armed conflict over water does not exist, the potential for political instability over domestic water distribution and development issues is real. The question of whether conflict at the subnational scale will culminate in violence will depend on how water‐resources institutions in the basin behave.     

HYPHENATED GEOGRAPHIES: THE DEINDUSTRIALIZATION OF NATURE‐SOCIETY GEOGRAPHY*

As visions of ecological crisis mark the daily headlines, industrial spaces of intensive energy and material consumption become a more intense object of political and social concern. In this article, I attempt to situate geography's relative neglect of the ecological underpinnings of industrial capitalism within the context of the history of geographical thought. I argue that the ways in which geographers read the hyphen in the phrase “nature‐society” reveals epistemological limits to their object of study. I then offer three dramatically different readings of the hyphen and discuss how they have affected the lineages and trajectories of geographical research—Barrows's human ecology, Sauer's cultural landscape, and critical theories of social nature. I conclude by suggesting that geography needs to let go of its empirical and conceptual fixation on “nature”.     

CLAIMING NEW TERRITORY FOR A STABLE PEACE: HOW GEOGRAPHY CAN CONTRIBUTE*

Neglect by most geographers, especially political geographers, of one of the major issues of our time, that of war and peace, is criticized. Theories, methods and advances in the field of international relations are briefly reviewed and suggestions are offered to bring the geographic profession to a greater awareness of the major research issues. Sources for the study of international conflicts are listed.     

Strengthening the Ties Between Tourism and Economic Geography: A Theoretical Agenda*

This paper stresses the importance of bridging the conceptual gap between tourism research and economic geography. It explains why the tourism production system has been unable to avoid its peripheral position in economic geography. The paper then focuses on the structure and organization of the principal agents comprising the tourism production system and identifies the state's pivotal role as coordinator of these agents. Lastly, it highlights two under-researched issues relating to entreprcneurship and labor pools and makes recommendations for further research.     

From Chicago to L.A. and Back Again: A Chicago‐Inspired Quantitative Analysis of Income Distribution in Montreal*

In a recent issue of Urban Geography (2001) , a number of key players in the 1960s and 1970s school of quantitative urban geography (called Chicago II in this article) set out some of the approach's key methodological premises and assessed its influence in the wider arena of urban studies. At about the same time, the 1920s and 1930s Chicago School of urban sociology (called the Chicago School in this article) was being reassessed in France ( Huet 2000 ), and deconstructed in Los Angeles ( Dear 2001 ). In this article, we outline a selection of basic models of urban space proposed by the Chicago School and further elaborated by Chicago II. We then consider certain aspects of three important critiques: humanist/aesthetic, Marxist, and postmodern. We argue that none of these invalidates the Chicago II approach to the study of urban areas, and we demonstrate its resilience and usefulness by way of the empirical example of Montreal. Though the results are of interest in their own right, the principal purpose of the analysis is to illustrate the type of insight that a structured quantitative approach provides and the way this approach rests on a theoretical understanding of processes at work in cities. We conclude by arguing that the humanist and Marxist critiques shed important light upon the possibilities and limits of the Chicago II approach, but that the postmodern claim that the spatial development of urban areas is not structured by at least some general processes is inaccurate.     

THE GEOGRAPHY OF TICKET-SPLITTING: A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE 1976 ELECTIONS USING ENTROPY-MAXIMIZING METHODS*

Ticket-splitting is becoming increasingly common in American national elections, according to the results of voter surveys. Interstate variations in the amount and nature of ticket-splitting have been estimated using entropy maximizing methods. States are classified according to the degree and direction of ticket-splitting in the 1976 elections.     

AIDS NORTH AND SOUTH: DIFFUSION PATTERNS OF A GLOBAL EPIDEMIC AND A RESEARCH AGENDA FOR GEOGRAPHERS *

Apart from the tragic certainty of death which accompanies AIDS everywhere, the means of its transmission, the spatial patterns of its diffusion, and the groups at highest risk of infection vary considerably among world regions. This paper reviews the disease and its transmission, then proposes three models of AIDS diffusion to assess the implications of the epidemic on various regions. AIDS North, of North America and western Europe, is urban based and primarily confined to homosexuals and IV drug abusers. AIDS South, in central Africa and the Caribbean, is spreading from cities into rural regions and affects primarily heterosexuals. The third, an AIDS North/South hybrid, is postulated as a model of diffusion of the disease in other Third World regions. The final section addresses the potential contribution of geographic research to policy-makers in attempting to cope with the diffusion of AIDS and in curbing the epidemic's advance.     

A Regionally Based Energy End‐Use Strategy: Case Studies from Centre County,Pennsylvania*

The production and use of fossil fuels and nonrenewable electricity creates many forms of environmental degradation. To reduce degradation, this research suggests an energy strategy based on energy end‐use analysis and regional geography. Energy end‐use analysis and regional geography are used to match renewable energy resources with site‐specific, end‐use needs. Fieldwork conducted within Centre County, Pennsylvania, demonstrates that small‐scale solar, wind, and micro‐hydropower resources could displace a proportion of household electricity use. Such an approach meets energy end‐use needs, while conserving fossil fuels and reducing environmental degradation.     

Cultural Geography: A Survey of Perceptions Held by Cultural Geography Specialty Group Members*

As of the year 2000, the Cultural Geography Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers had 465 members and ranked fourth overall in total membership within the association. Furthermore, cultural geographers had the second fastest growing specialty group between 1993 and 1998, after the Geographic Perspectives on Women specialty group. In spite of this demonstrated overwhelming appeal among geographers, to date, no one has systematically analyzed the subdiscipline of cultural geography to determine such things as its links to other aspects of the discipline, its major scholarly contributions, its most highly regarded publication outlets, its notable practitioners, and its most recognized departments. As the ranks of cultural geographers have swelled, the subdiscipline has become multifaceted. This article contextualizes and interprets the results of a survey sent to members of the 1998–1999 Cultural Geography Specialty Group. Outcomes include Louisiana State University and the University of Texas at Austin listed as offering the strongest cultural geography departments, Wilbur Zelinsky being deemed the subfield's most outstanding living practitioner, and the Annals of the Association of American Geographers named the journal that best meets cultural geographers’ needs.     

Mosquito Habitat and Dengue Risk Potential in Hawaii: A Conceptual Framework and GIS Application*

Dengue is an emerging disease, and the distribution of the mosquito vector is partially mediated by environmental conditions. In this article, a new conceptual model is suggested that emphasizes the importance of including environmental variability in mosquito modeling studies. In an applied sense, mosquito habitat maps are developed for Hawaii using a GIS overlay of mosquito survival thresholds of temperature, precipitation, and stream/wetland location. Populated areas represent locations with the potential for an outbreak. The maps are adjustable based on expert knowledge input, and efforts to prevent or control outbreaks can be concentrated in those zones delineated by this study.     

MEETINGHOUSES IN THE MORMON MIND: IDEOLOGY,ARCHITECTURE, AND TURBULENT STREAMS OF AN EXPANDING CHURCH*

ABSTRACT. Early work by D. W. Meinig delimiting “The Mormon Culture Region” focused on the spread of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐day Saints (lds ) in a core, domain, and sphere scheme that recognized diffusion of a fast‐growing group bent on shifting its station from cultural edge to religious mainstream. Such a changeover from fringe belief to international force lacks any widely circulated rule book. The lds and its followers today extend influence through diverse, distinct pathways: making missionaries a recognizable global force, offering education on church‐controlled university campuses, emanating wholesomeness, entering high‐security federal service, and attaining national political power. But nothing so locks in an lds message as the standard‐plan meetinghouses, in uniform styles, that mark church presence in North America and other continents. This work analyzes that architecture and examines its fit within lds expansion and presentation of self, not just in the Salt Lake City church but even as imitated by outcast outliers.     

ENHANCING AND USING A SENSE OF PLACE WITHIN URBAN AREAS: A ROLE FOR APPLIED CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY

Basic concepts of cultural historical geography have been applied to a variety of community issues in St. Paul, MN. Through the process a sense of place has been developed at several scales. This inclusive sense of place has provided a link among various factions and made possible several compromises in land use and economic development issues. Most of the work was done through undergraduate field seminars.