Winter cloudiness variability in the Mediterranean region and its connection to atmospheric circulation features

The temporal and spatial variability of winter total cloud cover in southern Europe and the Mediterranean region and its connection to the synoptic-scale features of the general atmospheric circulation are examined for the period 1950–2005, by using the diagnostic and intrinsic NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data sets. At first, S-mode factor analysis is applied to the time series of winter cloud cover, revealing five factors that correspond to the main modes of inter-annual variability of cloudiness. The linkage between each of the five factors and the atmospheric circulation is examined by constructing the 500 hPa and 1,000 hPa geopotential height anomaly patterns that correspond to the highest/lowest factor scores. Then, k-means cluster analysis is applied to the factor scores time series, classifying the 56 years into six distinct clusters that describe the main modes of spatial distribution of cloudiness. Eventually, canonical correlation analysis is applied to the factor scores time series of: (1) 500 and 1,000 hPa geopotential heights over Europe and the North Atlantic Ocean and (2) total cloud cover over southern Europe and the Mediterranean, in order to define the main centers of action in the middle and the lower troposphere that control winter cloudiness variability in the various sub-regions of the area under study. Three statistically significant canonical pairs are revealed, defining the main modes of atmospheric circulation forcing on cloudiness variability. North Atlantic oscillation and European blocking activity modulate the highest percentage of cloudiness variability. A statistically significant negative trend of winter cloudiness is found for central and southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. This negative trend is associated with the corresponding positive trends in NAO and European blocking activity.     

Decadal climate variability in the Mediterranean region: roles of large-scale forcings and regional processes

We analyze decadal climate variability in the Mediterranean region using observational datasets over the period 1850–2009 and a regional climate model simulation for the period 1960–2000, focusing in particular on the winter (DJF) and summer (JJA) seasons. Our results show that decadal variability associated with the winter and summer manifestations of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO and SNAO respectively) and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) significantly contribute to decadal climate anomalies over the Mediterranean region during these seasons. Over 30% of decadal variance in DJF and JJA precipitation in parts of the Mediterranean region can be explained by NAO and SNAO variability respectively. During JJA, the AMO explains over 30% of regional surface air temperature anomalies and Mediterranean Sea surface temperature anomalies, with significant influence also in the transition seasons. In DJF, only Mediterranean SST still significantly correlates with the AMO while regional surface air temperature does not. Also, there is no significant NAO influence on decadal Mediterranean surface air temperature anomalies during this season. A simulation with the PROTHEUS regional ocean–atmosphere coupled model is utilized to investigate processes determining regional decadal changes during the 1960–2000 period, specifically the wetter and cooler 1971–1985 conditions versus the drier and warmer 1986–2000 conditions. The simulation successfully captures the essence of observed decadal changes. Model set-up suggests that AMO variability is transmitted to the Mediterranean/European region and the Mediterranean Sea via atmospheric processes. Regional feedbacks involving cloud cover and soil moisture changes also appear to contribute to observed changes. If confirmed, the linkage between Mediterranean temperatures and the AMO may imply a certain degree of regional decadal climate predictability. The AMO and other decadal influences outlined here should be considered along with those from long-term increases in greenhouse gas forcings when making regional climate out-looks for the Mediterranean 10–20?years out.     

Winter convective precipitation variability in southeastern Europe and its connection to middle tropospheric circulation for the 60-year period, 1950–2009

The inter-annual variability of winter convective precipitation rate (CPR) in southeastern Europe and its connection to 500?hPa geopotential height (GH) is examined for the period 1950–2009 by using factor analysis and canonical correlation analysis. Two GH centers of action for CPR are found. The first one is located over Italy and it is associated with the typical winter depression activity regime over the Mediterranean Sea, controlling CPR in southern Italy, the southern Balkans, west Asia Minor, and the adjacent seas. The second one is located over the British Isles and it is associated with blocking activity over western Europe being responsible for a CPR seesaw teleconnection between (1) northern Italy, the Alps and the northwestern Balkans and (2) the south central Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. A CPR decrease in most of the areas under study and a CPR increase in the south central Mediterranean Sea are found.     

Wind variability in the northwestern part of the Black Sea from the offshore fixed platform observation data

The statistically ensured estimates of characteristics of temporal variability of wind speed and wind direction are obtained on the basis of observations carried out in 1996–2001 at the offshore fixed platform in the northwestern part of the Black Sea. The maximum values of monthly mean wind speed (more than 8 m/s) are registered in the cold half-year and the minimum ones (～4 m/s), in summer. The moderate winds of northern and southern directions dominate during the whole year. Using the Pearson’s chi-squared test, it is demonstrated that the wind speed follows the normal distribution law during the most part of observation period. The largest deviations from the normal law are timed to the periods of existence of intensive large-scale anomalies in the ocean-atmosphere system. A significant alternation of both synoptic and lower-frequency intramonthly wind speed fluctuations with typical periods of ～10–15 days is revealed. Their peak amplitude was registered in the fall and winter season of 1997/98, i.e., it was observed during the mature phase of one of the most intensive El Niños during the whole period of instrumental observations. At that time, the energy of intramonthly low-frequency wind speed fluctuations (～4 m²/s²) was equal to the energy of fluctuations within the synoptic range of the spectrum.     

Winter weather regimes over the Mediterranean region: their role for the regional climate and projected changes in the twenty-first century

The winter time weather variability over the Mediterranean is studied in relation to the prevailing weather regimes (WRs) over the region. Using daily geopotential heights at 700 hPa from the ECMWF ERA40 Reanalysis Project and Cluster Analysis, four WRs are identified, in increasing order of frequency of occurrence, as cyclonic (22.0 %), zonal (24.8 %), meridional (25.2 %) and anticyclonic (28.0 %). The surface climate, cloud distribution and radiation patterns associated with these winter WRs are deduced from satellite (ISCCP) and other observational (E-OBS, ERA40) datasets. The LMDz atmosphere–ocean regional climate model is able to simulate successfully the same four Mediterranean weather regimes and reproduce the associated surface and atmospheric conditions for the present climate (1961–1990). Both observational- and LMDz-based computations show that the four Mediterranean weather regimes control the region’s weather and climate conditions during winter, exhibiting significant differences between them as for temperature, precipitation, cloudiness and radiation distributions within the region. Projections (2021–2050) of the winter Mediterranean weather and climate are obtained using the LMDz model and analysed in relation to the simulated changes in the four WRs. According to the SRES A1B emission scenario, a significant warming (between 2 and 4 °C) is projected to occur in the region, along with a precipitation decrease by 10–20 % in southern Europe, Mediterranean Sea and North Africa, against a 10 % precipitation increase in northern European areas. The projected changes in temperature and precipitation in the Mediterranean are explained by the model-predicted changes in the frequency of occurrence as well as in the intra-seasonal variability of the regional weather regimes. The anticyclonic configuration is projected to become more recurrent, contributing to the decreased precipitation over most of the basin, while the cyclonic and zonal ones become more sporadic, resulting in more days with below normal precipitation over most of the basin, and on the eastern part of the region, respectively. The changes in frequency and intra-seasonal variability highlights the usefulness of dynamics versus statistical downscaling techniques for climate change studies.     

Future changes in daily summer temperature variability: driving processes and role for temperature extremes

Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are expected to lead to more frequent and intense summer temperature extremes, not only due to the mean warming itself, but also due to changes in temperature variability. To test this hypothesis, we analyse daily output of ten PRUDENCE regional climate model scenarios over Europe for the 2071–2100 period. The models project more frequent temperature extremes particularly over the Mediterranean and the transitional climate zone (TCZ, between the Mediterranean to the south and the Baltic Sea to the north). The projected warming of the uppermost percentiles of daily summer temperatures is found to be largest over France (in the region of maximum variability increase) rather than the Mediterranean (where the mean warming is largest). The underlying changes in temperature variability may arise from changes in (1) interannual temperature variability, (2) intraseasonal variability, and (3) the seasonal cycle. We present a methodology to decompose the total daily variability into these three components. Over France and depending upon the model, the total daily summer temperature variability is projected to significantly increase by 20–40% as a result of increases in all three components: interannual variability (30–95%), seasonal variability (35–105%), and intraseasonal variability (10–30%). Variability changes in northern and southern Europe are substantially smaller. Over France and parts of the TCZ, the models simulate a progressive warming within the summer season (corresponding to an increase in seasonal variability), with the projected temperature change in August exceeding that in June by 2–3 K. Thus, the most distinct warming is superimposed upon the maximum of the current seasonal cycle, leading to a higher intensity of extremes and an extension of the summer period (enabling extreme temperatures and heat waves even in September). The processes driving the variability changes are different for the three components but generally relate to enhanced land–atmosphere coupling and/or increased variability of surface net radiation, accompanied by a strong reduction of cloudiness, atmospheric circulation changes and a progressive depletion of soil moisture within the summer season. The relative contribution of these processes differs substantially between models.     

Precipitation extremes in a karst region: a case study in the Guizhou province, southwest China

The topography of hilly landscapes modifies crop environment changing the fluxes of water and energy, increasing risk in these vulnerable agriculture systems, which could become more accentuated under climate change (drought, increased variability of rainfall). In order to quantify how wheat production in hilly terrain will be affected by future climate, a newly developed and calibrated micro-meteorological model for hilly terrain was linked to a crop growth simulation model to analyse impact scenarios for different European regions. Distributions of yield and growing length of rainfed winter wheat and durum wheat were generated as probabilistic indices from baseline and low (B2) and high (A2) emission climate scenarios provided from the Hadley Centre Regional Climate Model (HadRM3). We used site-specific terrain parameters for two sample catchments in Europe, ranging from humid temperate (southeast UK) to semi-arid Mediterranean (southern Italy). Results for baseline scenario show that UK winter wheat is mainly affected by annual differences in precipitation and yield distributions do not change with terrain, whilst in the southern Mediterranean climate yield variability is significantly related to a slope × elevation index. For future climate, our simulations confirm earlier predictions of yield increase in the UK, even under the high emission scenario. In the southern Mediterranean, yield reduction is significantly related to slope × elevation index increasing crop failure in drier elevated spots but not in wet years under baseline weather. In scenarios for the future, the likelihood of crop failure rises sharply to more than 60%, and even in wet years, yields are likely to decrease in elevated spots.     

Monthly Anticyclonicity in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean Region

Summary The geographical distribution of 13-year anticyclone centres frequency, and averages of monthly anticyclonicity and anticyclone immobility times over southern Europe and the Mediterranean basin for the years 1981–1993 are presented. Monthly changes in anticyclonicity and immobility times are analyzed and discussed. Reference is made to the atmospheric climatology of the study region as well as to some synoptic scale features of its climatology. Comparisons are made with an established synoptic climatology of the region and with relevant climatologies contained in the literature. Finally, reference is made to past work relating to the synoptic climatology of the region and to similar studies for different continental and maritime areas. Received May 8, 1996 Revised February 10, 1997     

Analyzing the genesis, intensity, and tracks of western Mediterranean cyclones

Midlatitude cyclones are analyzed on a selected region covering most of southern Europe and the western part of the Mediterranean Sea (35–50°N, 10°W–25°E). On the basis of mean sea level pressure fields of the ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecast) Reanalysis Dataset (ERA-40), detailed evaluation of Mediterranean cyclones is accomplished for the period between 1957 and 2002 on a 1° horizontal resolution grid. Cyclone centers are identified and their paths are tracked with a 6-h time step (using 00 UTC, 06 UTC, 12 UTC, and 18 UTC). Decadal, annual, and seasonal statistical analysis of cyclone tracks includes the study of the genesis, frequency, and activity of the Mediterranean cyclones as well as the variability of cyclone tracks. The results suggest that the cyclone frequency in the western Mediterranean region increased in summer and autumn, and decreased in winter and spring. A special belt-shaped area is identified, which plays a special role in cyclogenesis, and also, the cyclone tracks often remain within this belt. An overall decreasing trend is detected in winter and spring in the entire Mediterranean belt, while cyclone frequency increased in autumn. The largest positive and negative trend coefficients are identified in summer.     

Mediterranean climate extremes in synoptic downscaling assessments

The behaviour of precipitation and maximum temperature extremes in the Mediterranean area under climate change conditions is analysed in the present study. In this context, the ability of synoptic downscaling techniques in combination with extreme value statistics for dealing with extremes is investigated. Analyses are based upon a set of long-term station time series in the whole Mediterranean area. At first, a station-specific ensemble approach for model validation was developed which includes (1) the downscaling of daily precipitation and maximum temperature values from the large-scale atmospheric circulation via analogue method and (2) the fitting of extremes by generalized Pareto distribution (GPD). Model uncertainties are quantified as confidence intervals derived from the ensemble distributions of GPD-related return values and described by a new metric called “ratio of overlapping”. Model performance for extreme precipitation is highest in winter, whereas the best models for maximum temperature extremes are set up in autumn. Valid models are applied to a 30-year period at the end of the twenty-first century (2070–2099) by means of ECHAM5/MPI-OM general circulation model data for IPCC SRES B1 scenario. The most distinctive future changes are observed in autumn in terms of a strong reduction of precipitation extremes in Northwest Iberia and the Northern Central Mediterranean area as well as a simultaneous distinct increase of maximum temperature extremes in Southwestern Iberia and the Central and Southeastern Mediterranean regions. These signals are checked for changes in the underlying dynamical processes using extreme-related circulation classifications. The most important finding connected to future changes of precipitation extremes in the Northwestern Mediterranean area is a reduction of southerly displaced deep North Atlantic cyclones in 2070–2099 as associated with a strengthened North Atlantic Oscillation. Thus, the here estimated future changes of extreme precipitation are in line with the discourse about the influence of North Atlantic circulation variability on the changing climate in Europe.     

Solar dimming and its impact on estimating solar radiation from diurnal temperature range in China, 1961–2007

The relationship of prolonged dry spells in Eastern Mediterranean with large-scale surface and upper circulation is investigated on seasonal basis with the aid of the Singular-Value Decomposition Analysis (SVDA) for the period 1958–2000. The study was based on daily precipitation data of 56 stations, evenly distributed over Eastern Mediterranean region. Extreme dry spells are defined using the CDD index (maximum number of consecutive dry days). It was found that teleconnection patterns centered over Northern Atlantic and northern Europe seem to affect the duration of the longest dry spells over the Eastern Mediterranean, while surface synoptic scale systems in Northern Africa play a substantial role. The SVDA results compare well with the corresponding results of Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA), mainly for the surface circulation during winter and summer.     

Mean, interannual variability and trends in a regional climate change experiment over Europe. II: climate change scenarios (2071–2100)

We present an analysis of climate change over Europe as simulated by a regional climate model (RCM) nested within time-slice atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) experiments. Changes in mean and interannual variability are discussed for the 30-year period of 2071–2100 with respect to the present day period of 1961–1990 under forcing from the A2 and B2 IPCC emission scenarios. In both scenarios, the European region undergoes substantial warming in all seasons, in the range of 1–5.5°C, with the warming being 1–2°C lower in the B2 than in the A2 scenario. The spatial patterns of warming are similar in the two scenarios, with a maximum over eastern Europe in winter and over western and southern Europe in summer. The precipitation changes in the two scenarios also show similar spatial patterns. In winter, precipitation increases over most of Europe (except for the southern Mediterranean regions) due to increased storm activity and higher atmospheric water vapor loadings. In summer, a decrease in precipitation is found over most of western and southern Europe in response to a blocking-like anticyclonic circulation over the northeastern Atlantic which deflects summer storms northward. The precipitation changes in the intermediate seasons (spring and fall) are less pronounced than in winter and summer. Overall, the intensity of daily precipitation events predominantly increases, often also in regions where the mean precipitation decreases. Conversely the number of wet days decreases (leading to longer dry periods) except in the winter over western and central Europe. Cloudiness, snow cover and soil water content show predominant decreases, in many cases also in regions where precipitation increases. Interannual variability of both temperature and precipitation increases substantially in the summer and shows only small changes in the other seasons. A number of statistically significant regional trends are found throughout the scenario simulations, especially for temperature and for the A2 scenario. The results from the forcing AGCM simulations and the nested RCM simulations are generally consistent with each other at the broad scale. However, significant differences in the simulated surface climate changes are found between the two models in the summer, when local physics processes are more important. In addition, substantial fine scale detail in the RCM-produced change signal is found in response to local topographical and coastline features.     

Thermohaline Structure of Water in Antarctic Coastal Areas in March–April 2019 Derived from the 64th Russian Antarctic Expedition Measurements

The thermohaline structure of water in the Antarctic coastal areas adjoining Molodezhnaya, Novolazarevskaya, and Bellingshausen stations is analyzed using many-hour soundings carried out in March–April 2019 during the 64th Russian Antarctic Expedition on the Akademik Fedorov research vessel. Water masses typical of the Antarctic zone (Antarctic surface, Antarctic shelf, Antarctic winter, upper circumpolar deep water, Bransfield Strait surface water) are identified, and the features of their temporal variability are described. It is shown that intradaily and interdaily variations in water temperature and salinity were observed during the measurement period. The changes in the water structure in the area of Molodezhnaya, Novolazarevskaya, and Bellingshausen stations occurred under changes in synoptic atmospheric conditions, and their frequency was close to that of tidal processes.

     

Characteristics of the internal and external sources of the Mediterranean synoptic cyclones for the period 1956–2013

This paper investigates the main sources and features of the Mediterranean synoptic cyclones affecting the basin, using the cyclone tracks. The cyclones’ tracks are identified using sea level pressure (SLP) from the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data for the period 1956–2013. The identified cyclones are classified into two categories: basin affected and basin non-affected. Most of the basin-affected (non-affected) cyclones are internal (external), i.e., generated inside (outside) the Mediterranean basin. This study reveals four (five) main sources of internal (external) cyclones. These four (five) main sources generated about 63.76% (57.25%) of the internal (external) cyclones. Seasonal analysis shows that most of the basin-affected internal (external) cyclones were generated in the winter (spring) season. The lowest number of cyclones were found in the summer. Moreover, the synoptic study of the atmospheric systems accompanied the highest- and lowest-generated years demonstrates that the deepening of the north Europe cyclones and the relative positions of Azores- and Siberian-high systems represent the important factors that influence the number of internal cyclones. Essential factors influencing the external cyclones are the strength of the maximum upper wind, Azores high, Siberian high, and orientations of their ridges.     

The expectation of future precipitation change over the Mediterranean region is different from what we observe

In this study we assess the role of anthropogenic forcing (greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols, GS) in recently observed precipitation trends over the Mediterranean region. We investigate whether the observed precipitation trends (1966–2005 and 1979–2008) are consistent with what 22 models project as response of precipitation to GS forcing. Significance is estimated using 9,000-year control runs derived from the CMIP3 archive. The results indicate that externally forced changes are detectable in observed precipitation trends in winter, late summer and in autumn. Natural internal climate variability cannot explain these changes. However, the observed trends (derived from 3 sources) are markedly inconsistent with expected changes due to GS forcing. While the influence of GS signal is detectable in winter and early spring, observed changes are several times larger than the projected response to GS forcing. The most striking inconsistency, however, is the contradiction between projected drying and the observed increase in precipitation in late summer and autumn, irrespective of the data set used. Natural (internal) variability as estimated from the models cannot account for these inconsistencies, which are already present in the large scale circulation patterns (Geopotential height at 500 hPa). The obtained results are robust to the removal of the fingerprint of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The detection of an outright sign mismatch of observed and projected trends in autumn and late summer, leads us to conclude that the recently observed trends can not be used as an illustration of plausible future expected change in the Mediterranean region. These significant shortcomings in our understanding of recent observed changes complicate communication of future expected changes in Mediterranean precipitation.     

Structure of climatic variability of the Mediterranean sea surface temperature. Part I. Standard deviations and linear trends

Interannual and longer-period variability of the Mediterranean sea surface temperature is studied in terms of standard deviations and linear trends based on the 1951–2000 data. It is shown that both standard deviations and linear SST trends in the Mediterranean Sea are clearly season-dependent. Seasonality of standard deviations is characterized by a zonally-oriented seesaw with opposite changes in standard deviations in the western and eastern parts of the basin from season to season. The SST trend seasonality is pronounced in winter in predominant negative SST trends, and in summer in positive trends. Such seasonal differences indicate that long-term Mediterranean SST variability has different mechanisms of formation.     

Sensitivity of last glacial maximum climate to sea ice conditions in the Nordic Seas

Published reconstructions of last glacial maximum (LGM) sea surface temperatures and sea ice extent differ significantly. We here test the sensitivity of simulated North Atlantic climates to two different reconstructions by using these reconstructions as boundary conditions for model experiments. An atmospheric general circulation model has been used to perform two simulations of the (LGM) and a modern-day control simulation. Standard (CLIMAP) reconstructions of sea ice and sea surface temperatures have been used for the first simulation, and a set of new reconstructions in the Nordic Seas/Northern Atlantic have been used for the second experiment. The new reconstruction is based on 158 core samples, and represents ice-free conditions during summer in the Nordic Seas, with accordingly warmer sea surface temperatures and less extensive sea ice during winter as well. The simulated glacial climate is globally 5.7 K colder than modern day, with the largest changes at mid and high latitudes. Due to more intense Hadley circulation, the precipitation at lower latitudes has increased in the simulations of the LGM. Relative to the simulation with the standard CLIMAP reconstructions, reduction of the sea ice in the North Atlantic gives positive local responses in temperature, precipitation and reduction of the sea level pressure. Only very weak signatures of the wintertime Icelandic Low occur when the standard CLIMAP sea surface temperature reconstruction is used as the lower boundary condition in LGM. With reduced sea ice conditions in the Nordic Seas, the Icelandic Low becomes more intense and closer to its present structure. This indicates that thermal forcing is an important factor in determining the strength and position of the Icelandic Low. The Arctic Oscillation is the most dominant large scale variability feature on the Northern Hemisphere in modern day winter climate. In the simulation of the LGM with extensive sea ice this pattern is significantly changed and represents no systematic large scale variability over the North Atlantic. Reduction of the North Atlantic sea ice extent leads to stronger variability in monthly mean sea level pressure in winter. The synoptic variability appears at a lower level in the simulation when standard reconstructions of the sea surface in the LGM are used. A closer inspection of storm tracks in this model experiment shows that that the synoptic lows follow a narrow band along the ice edge during winter. The trajectories of synoptic lows are not constrained to the sea ice edge to the same degree when the sea ice extent is reduced. Seasonally open waters in the Nordic Seas in the new reconstruction apparently act as a moisture source, consistent with the current understanding of the rapid growth of the Fennoscandian and Barents Ice Sheets, during the LGM. The signal from the intensified thermal forcing in the North Atlantic in Boreal winter is carried zonally by upper tropospheric waves, and thus generates non-local responses to the changed sea ice cover.     

一次闽南暖区暴雨的多尺度动力过程

作为气象研究中的一个难点问题,暖区暴雨的动力学一直为学界所关注。基于多尺度子空间变换(MWT)以及基于MWT的局地多尺度能量学分析和正则传输理论,对2018年5月7日的一次闽南暖区暴雨进行研究以了解其多尺度动力过程。首先将原始物理量场重建到三个尺度子空间:背景流子空间、天气尺度子空间和暴雨子空间。重构场上可以很好地看出背景环流尺度的高低空急流,以及暴雨尺度上的垂直环流。以往的研究普遍认为暖区暴雨的动力过程具有弱斜压性这一特征,而就此次事件而言,正压失稳和斜压失稳都起着很关键的作用,暴雨主要落区内既发生了正压失稳,也发生了斜压失稳。研究表明,对流层不同高度上的动力学存在差异,低层主要表现为正压失稳,天气尺度子空间与背景流子空间向暴雨子空间传输的动能相当; 中层主要是混合失稳,除正压失稳外,斜压正则传输也将有效位能从背景流子空间传输到了暴雨子空间,再通过浮力转换将有效位能转为动能,从而维持暴雨在中层的动力过程; 高层则与低层相似,但只存在背景流子空间向暴雨子空间的能量传输。      

Trend analysis of precipitation time series in Greece and their relationship with circulation using surface and satellite data: 1955–2001

Summary In this study, the trends of annual and seasonal precipitation time series were examined on the basis of measurements of 22 surface stations in Greece for the period 1955–2001, and satellite data during the period 1980–2001. For this purpose, two statistical tests based on the least square method and one based on the Mann-Kendall test, which is also capable of detecting the starting year of possible climatic discontinuities or changes, are applied. Greece, in general, presents a clear significant downward trend in annual precipitation for the period 1955–2001, which is determined by the respective decreasing trend in winter precipitation. Both winter and annual series exhibit a downward trend with a starting year being 1984. Satellite-derived precipitation time series could be an alternative means for diagnosing the variability of precipitation in Greece and detecting trends provided that they have been adjusted by surface measurements in the wider area of interest. The relationship between precipitation variability in Greece and atmospheric circulation was also examined using correlation analysis with three circulation indices: the well-known North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI), a Mediterranean Oscillation Index (MOI) and a new Mediterranean Circulation Index (MCI). NAOI is the index that presented the most interesting correlation with winter, summer and annual precipitation in Greece, whereas the MOI and MCI were found to explain a significant proportion of annual and summer precipitation variability, respectively. The observed downward trend in winter and annual precipitation in Greece is linked mainly to a rising trend in the hemispheric circulation modes of the NAO, which are connected with the Mediterranean Oscillation Index.     

Competition of NAO regime changes and increasing greenhouse gases and aerosols with respect to Arctic climate projections

Regional magnitudes and patterns of Arctic winter climate changes in consequence of regime changes of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) are analyzed using a regional atmospheric climate model. The regional model has been driven with data of positive and negative NAO phases from a control simulation as well as from a time-dependent greenhouse gas and aerosol scenario simulation. Both global model simulations include a quite realistic interannual variability of the NAO with pronounced decadal regime changes and no or rather weak long-term NAO trends. The results indicate that the effects of NAO regime changes on Arctic winter temperatures and precipitation are regionally significant over most of northwestern Eurasia and parts of Greenland. In this regard, mean winter temperature variations of up to 6 K may occur over northern Europe. Precipitation and synoptic variability are also regionally modified by NAO regime changes, but not as significantly as temperatures. However, the climate changes associated with the NAO are in some regions clearly stronger than those attributed to enhanced greenhouse gases and aerosols, indicating that projected global changes of the atmospheric composition and internal circulation changes are competing with each other in their importance for the Arctic climate evolution in the near future. The knowledge of the future NAO trend on decadal and longer time scales appears to be vitally important in terms of a regional assessment of climate scenarios for the Arctic.