The crust and upper mantle discontinuity structure beneath Alaska inferred from receiver functions

In this study, three receiver function stacking methods are used to study the detailed crust and upper mantle structure beneath south-central Alaska. We used teleseismic waveform data recorded by 36 stations in the Broadband Experiment Across the Alaska Range (BEAAR) and 4 permanent stations in Alaska. H − κ stacking method using P-to-S converted wave and its multiply reflected waves between the Earth's surface and the Moho discontinuity is adopted to estimate the crustal thickness (H) and average crustal V_P/V_S ratio (κ) in this region. The receiver function results for 24 stations show that the crustal thickness under Alaska ranges from 26.0 to 42.6 km with an average value of 33.8 km, and the V_P/V_S ratio varies from 1.66 to 1.94 with an average value of 1.81 which corresponds to an average Poisson's ratio of 0.277 with a range from 0.216 to 0.320. High Poisson's ratios under some stations are possibly caused by partial melting in the crust and the uppermost mantle. Common converted point (CCP) stacking results of receiver functions along three lines show clear Moho and slab images under this subduction zone. The depths of the slab from our CCP stacking images are consistent with those estimated from the Wadati–Benioff Zone (WBZ). In the area between two stations DH2 (147.8°W, 63.3°N) and DH3 (147.1°W, 63.0°N), a Moho depth offset of about 10 km is found by both the H − κ and CCP stacking techniques. Common depth point (CDP) stacking of receiver functions shows not only the 410-, 520- and 660-km discontinuities, but also significant variations (−30 to 15 km) in the transition zone thickness under the southwest and southeast parts of the study region. The transition zone becomes thinner by 20–30 km, indicating that the temperature there is 150–200 K higher than that of the normal mantle.     

中国大陆东南缘地震接收函数与地壳和上地幔结构

从2008-2011年,分别在中国大陆东南缘沿海和内陆两条NE向剖面上进行了宽频地震观测,利用记录到的远震波形资料提取得到1446个远震P波接收函数,用H-κ叠加扫描和CCP偏移叠加方法研究了中国大陆东南缘地壳及上地幔过渡带的结构及其变化特征.结合固定台网25个台站的H-κ结果,获得中国大陆东南缘(福建地区)地壳厚度从内陆到沿海逐渐减薄的图像:地壳从闽西北山区的33 km减薄到厦门沿海一带的29 km以下,平均地壳厚度为31.3 km,具有陆地向洋壳过渡的特征;地壳泊松比从内陆到沿海显示出分带特征,闽中西部内陆地区小于0.26,沿海地带高于0.26,且在断裂带的交汇区域表现为相对异常高值.地壳上地幔顶部(0~200 km)的CCP偏移叠加成像结果显示闽江断裂等NW向断裂深切Moho界面,在断裂两侧Moho面急剧抬升或下沉,产状改变,这些特征向内陆地区逐渐变得不明显.闽江等NW向断裂对研究区地壳厚度、地震等有明显控制作用.上地幔尺度(300~700 km)的CCP偏移叠加成像,未见410 km和660 km速度间断面突变和起伏异常,其绝对深度略大于IASP91模型的,上地幔转换带厚度正常(250±5 km),表明中国大陆东南缘上地幔转换带未受欧亚与菲律宾板块碰撞的明显影响,推断中国大陆东南缘及台湾海峡下方不存在俯冲板块,或俯冲前缘未扰动到410 km的深度.     

Mantle discontinuities beneath Izu-Bonin and the implications

The detailed structure of the Earths interior is a major field of geophysics study and the existence and the properties of mantle discontinuities are its important content. Since the lateral heterogeneity was discovered with the seismic tomography method,…     

Tomographic inversion of P410s delay times for simultaneous determination of P and S velocities of the upper mantle beneath the Baltic Shield

Teleseismic data recorded by stations in the Swedish National Seismic Network (SNSN) are used for a study of upper mantle structure beneath the Baltic Shield using the receiver function technique. The data show very clear conversions from the 410 and 660 km discontinuities. The signals associated with P to S conversions at these discontinuities arrive 1-2 s earlier than predicted by global models such as IASP91 or PREM. We interpret this as a manifestation of higher than average velocities in the mantle beneath the shield, consistent with lower than average global temperatures. For a 1400 km profile along the network, we observe variations of around 1 second in delay times of P410s and slightly less for P660s. Under the assumption that the mantle discontinuities are at a given constant depth, the delay times of the mantle converted phases are tomographically inverted to reveal P and S velocity structure below the stations. Synthetic tests show that this tomographic inversion has the potential to resolve P and S velocity variations at structural scales adequate for upper mantle studies. Results from application to real data appear to be consistent with independently produced mantle velocity structures deduced from normal tomographic arrival time data. For the P velocity model, a north-dipping body of (relatively) low velocity is found for the central part of the profile at 58-64°N. A sharp contrast from low to high velocities that may be associated with the Proterozoic-Archean boundary is found at 66°N.     

华北克拉通东北部及邻区地壳和地幔转换带厚度研究

本文利用宽频流动台阵记录的远震波形资料和接收函数波动方程叠后偏移方法,获得了华北克拉通东北部边界及其邻近地区的地壳和地幔转换带的间断面结构图像.结果显示研究区域的地壳厚度存在显著的横向变化:以南北重力梯度带为界,西北部的兴蒙造山带地壳较厚(~40 km),东南部的燕山带、松辽盆地和辽东台隆地壳明显较薄(30~35 km).这有可能反映,研究区南北重力梯度带两侧地壳在中-新生代区域构造伸展过程中经历了不同程度的改造和减薄.地幔转换带成像结果显示,研究区410 km和660 km间断面结构存在横向差异.经度121°E-122°E之间,上地幔底部出现双重间断面,深度分别为660 km和690 km.经度122.5°E以东(北黄海地区),410 km间断面有5~20 km幅度的下沉,660 km间断面有5~15 km幅度的抬升;该地区地幔转换带厚度相对全球平均偏薄10~20 km,指示着该地区较热的上地幔底部温度环境.我们认为太平洋俯冲板块可能停滞在研究区119°E-122°E经度范围的地幔转换带中,但未延伸至118°E以西;而俯冲板块在124°E以东可能局部穿透了上地幔底部而进入下地幔,同时引起小尺度的地幔对流,导致北黄海地区下地幔物质的上涌.     

Upper Mantle Seismic Structure Beneath Southern Africa: Constraints on the Buoyancy Supporting the African Superswell

We present new one-dimensional SH-wave velocity models of the upper mantle beneath the Kalahari craton in southern Africa obtained from waveform inversion of regional seismograms from an Mw = 5.9 earthquake located near Lake Tanganyika recorded on broadband seismic stations deployed during the 1997–1999 Southern African Seismic Experiment. The velocity in the lithosphere beneath the Kalahari craton is similar to that of other shields, and there is little evidence for a significant low velocity zone beneath the lithosphere. The lower part of the lithosphere, from 110 to 220 km depth, is slightly slower than beneath other shields, possibly due to higher temperatures or a decrease in Mg number (Mg#). If the slower velocities are caused by a thermal anomaly, then slightly less than half of the unusually high elevation of the Kalahari craton can be explained by shallow buoyancy from a hot lithosphere. However, a decrease in the Mg# of the lower lithosphere would increase the density and counteract the buoyancy effect of the higher temperatures. We obtain a thickness of 250 ± 30 km for the mantle transition zone, which is similar to the global average, but the velocity gradient between the 410 and 660 km discontinuities is less steep than in global models, such as PREM and IASP91. We also obtain velocity jumps of between 0.16 ± 0.1 and 0.21 ± 0.1 km/s across the 410 km discontinuity. Our results suggest that there may be a thermal or chemical anomaly in the mantle transition zone, or alternatively that the shear wave velocity structure of the transition zone in global reference models needs to be refined. Overall, our seismic models provide little support for an upper mantle source of buoyancy for the unusually high elevation of the Kalahari craton, and hence the southern African portion of the African Superswell.     

Crust and upper mantle structures beneath Northeast China from receiver function studies

P-wave and S-wave receiver function analyses have been performed along a profile consisted of 27 broadband seismic stations to image the crustal and upper mantle discontinuities across Northeast China. The results show that the average Moho depth varies from about 37 km beneath the Daxing’anling orogenic belt in the west to about 33 km beneath the Songliao Basin, and to about 35 km beneath the Changbai mountain region in the east. Our results reveal that the Moho is generally flat beneath the Daxing’anling region and a remarkable Moho offset (about 4 km) exists beneath the basin-mountain boundary, the Daxing’anling-Taihang Gravity Line. Beneath the Tanlu faults zone, which seperates the Songliao Basin and Changbai region, the Moho is uplift and the crustal thickness changes rapidly. We interpret this feature as that the Tanlu faults might deeply penetrate into the upper mantle, and facilitate the mantle upwelling along the faults during the Cenozoic era. The average depth of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB) is ~80 km along the profile which is thinner than an average thickness of a continental lithosphere. The LAB shows an arc-like shape in the basin, with the shallowest part approximately beneath the center of the basin. The uplift LAB beneath the basin might be related to the extensive lithospheric stretching in the Mesozoic. In the mantle transition zone, a structurally complicated 660 km discontinuity with a maximum 35 km depression beneath the Changbai region is observed. The 35 km depression is roughly coincident with the location of the stagnant western pacific slab on top of the 660 km discontinuity revealed by the recent P wave tomography.     

Global Observations of Mantle Discontinuities Using SS and PP Precursors

SS and PP precursors are currently the only body wave data types that have significant coverage in both oceanic and continental regions to study the existence and characteristics of mantle discontinuities on a global scale. Here, the techniques used by global seismologists to observe SS and PP precursors are reviewed. Seismograms, aligned on SS or PP, are stacked using normal move out (NMO) techniques to obtain common depth point gathers. Bootstrap methods are employed to determine 95% confidence levels of the stacks and robustness of the observations. With these relatively simple techniques, a range of discontinuities has been found in the mantle up to 1,200 km depth. The stacks are dominated by the transition zone discontinuities at 410, 520 and 660 km depth, but additional discontinuities at 220, 300–350, 800–900 and 1,100–1,200 km depth are also seen in certain regions. An overview is given of the most recent observational results with a discussion of their mineral physical interpretation and geodynamical significance. Both seismology and mineral physics agree on the level of complexity at the transition discontinuities: a simple 410, a more complicated 520 and a highly complicated 660-km discontinuity are consistently found in both disciplines.     

Composition,temperature, and thickness of the lithosphere of the Archean Kaapvaal craton

A new model is proposed for the structure of the Kaapvaal craton lithosphere. Based on chemical thermodynamics methods, profiles of the chemical composition, temperature, density, and S wave velocities are constructed for depths of 100–300 km. A solid-state zone of lower velocities is discovered on the S velocity profile in the depth interval 150–260 km. The temperature profiles are obtained from absolute values of P and S velocities, taking into account phase transformations, anharmonicity, and anelastic effects. The examination of the sensitivity of seismic models to the chemical composition showed that relatively small variations in the composition of South African xenoliths result in lateral temperature variations of ～200°C. Inversion of some seismic profiles (including IASP91) with a fixed bulk composition of garnet peridotites (the primitive mantle material) leads to a temperature inversion at depths of 200–250 km, which is physically meaningless. It is supposed that the temperature inversion can be removed by gradual fertilization of the mantle with depth. In this case, the craton lithosphere should be stratified in chemical composition. The depleted lithosphere composed by garnet peridotites exists to depths of 175–200 km. The lithospheric material at depths of 200–250 km is enriched in basaltoid components (FeO, Al₂O₃, and CaO) as compared with the material of garnet peridotites but is depleted in the same components as compared with the fertile substance of the underlying primitive mantle. The material composing the craton root at a depth of ～275 km does not differ in its physical and chemical characteristics from the composition of the normal mantle, and this allows one to estimate the thickness of the lithosphere at 275 km. The results of this work are compared with data of seismology, thermal investigations, and thermobarometry.     

The upper mantle discontinuities in western Canada fromPs conversions

We have investigated variations in the travel times ofPs converted phases from the upper mantle 410 and 660 km discontinuities recorded on the western stations of the Canadian National Seismograph Network using a variant of the technique introduced byVinnik (1977). Clear and unambiguous signals for both discontinuities are observed at 8 of the 11 stations considered and exhibit variations which correlate well with regional tectonic setting. Stations located in regions which are currently tectonically active are characterized by largerPs arrival times relative to directP than those situated on the North American craton. In addition the difference in arrival times between the 410 and 660Ps phases suggest that most of the variation is the result of structure above the transition zone but below the Moho. Stations located in the Cascadia subduction zone generally exhibit poorer signal quality than those elsewhere, a feature that may result from upper mantle velocity heterogeneity, discontinuity topography or a combination of both. A detailed investigation of possible lateral variations in discontinuity topography associated with subduction awaits the compilation of a more comprehensive data set which will permit the monitoring of an azimuthal dependence in signal.     

The crust and upper mantle structure beneath southeastern China

We analyzed teleseismic waveforms recorded by 44 stations in the Fujian and Taiwan provinces of China and obtained 5344 high quality receiver functions. The crustal thickness (H) and average crustal V_P/V_S ratio (k) beneath every station were estimated using the H–k stacking method. Crustal thicknesses near the Fujian Province range from 28.3 to 32.8 km with an average of 31.1 km, and the corresponding V_P/V_S ratios vary from 1.70 to 1.84 with a mean of 1.76. From inland to offshore of the Fujian Province, the crustal thicknesses decrease and Poisson's ratios increase. These may indicate decreasing SiO₂ and increasing calc-alkaline contents in the crust. The discontinuity structures such as the Moho, subducting slab, the 410- and 660-km discontinuities (hereafter we call them the 410 and the 660) are also studied using common converted point (CCP) stacking of receiver functions. Along two NW–SE lines of central and northern Taiwan, the CCP stacking results show a western dipping structure at depths above 50 km, suggesting that the Philippine Sea plate is probably subducting beneath the Eurasian continent plate near the central and northern Taiwan. The CCP stacking results show sharp and flat 410- and 660-km discontinuities, and the transition zone thickness (TZT) is the same as that of ambient mantle beneath Fujian and Taiwan Strait, but thickens in the east of Taiwan. These results suggest that (1) the subducting Eurasian continent plate is confined to the depths above 410 km beneath Fujian and Taiwan Strait; and (2) the South China Sea slab may reach the transition zone beneath the east of Taiwan.     

Topography of the Moho and Conrad discontinuities in the Kyushu district,Southwest Japan

The first P-arrival time data from local earthquakes are inverted for two-dimensional variation of the depths to the Conrad and Moho discontinuities in the Kyushu district, southwest Japan. At the same time, earthquake hypocenters and station corrections are determined from the data. The depths to the discontinuities are estimated by minimizing the travel time residuals of first P-arrival phases for 608 earthquakes observed at 57 seismic stations. In the land area of Kyushu, the Conrad and Moho discontinuities are located within the depth ranges of 16–18 and 34–40 km, respectively. The Conrad discontinuity is not as largely undulated as the Moho discontinuity. The depth to the Moho is deep along the east coast of Kyushu, and the deepest Moho is closely related to markedly low velocity of P wave. We regard the deepest Moho as reflecting the Kyushu–Palau ridge subducting beneath the Kyushu district, together with the Philippine Sea slab. In western Kyushu, the shallow Moho is spreading in the north–northeast–south–southwest direction in the Okinawa trough region. Based on the presence of low-velocity anomaly in three-dimensional velocity structure and seismogenic stress field of shallow crustal earthquakes, the shallow Moho is interpreted as being due to lower crustal erosion associated with a small-scale mantle upwelling in the Okinawa trough region. The velocity discontinuity undulation basically has insignificant effect on hypocenter determination of the local earthquakes, but the Moho topography makes changes in focal depths of some upper mantle earthquakes. The depth variation of the Moho discontinuity has a good correlation with the Bouguer gravity anomaly map; i.e., the shallow Moho of western Kyushu and the deep Moho of eastern Kyushu closely correlate with the positive and negative Bouguer gravity anomalies, respectively.     

Structure of crust and upper mantle beneath the Ordos Block and the Yinshan Mountains revealed by receiver function analysis

A temporary seismological network of broadband three-component stations has been deployed N–S to investigate the crust and upper mantle structure across the Ordos Block and the Yinshan Mountains. P wave receiver functions reveal the Moho depth to be about 41 km beneath the central Ordos Block and down to 45 km beneath the northern Ordos Block, a slight uplifting to 42–43 km beneath the Hetao Graben, increasing to 47–48 km beneath the Yinshan Mountains and then decreasing to 44 km beneath the northern Yinshan Mountains along the profile. In the Ordos Block, the crustal Vp/Vs ratio (about 1.80) south to the Hetao Graben differs from that (about 1.75) beneath the center Ordos Block. The crustal Vp/Vs ratio is significantly lower (about 1.65–1.70) beneath the Yinshan Mountains. The P wave receiver function migration imaging suggests relatively flat discontinuities at 410 and 660 km, indicating the lack of a strong thermal anomaly beneath this profile at these depths, and a low S wave velocity anomaly in the upper mantle beneath the Hetao Graben. We suggest that the low S wave velocity anomaly may be attributable to heat and that the thermal softening advances the evolution of the Hetao Graben, while the lower-crustal ductile flows transfer from the Hetao Graben to the northern Ordos Block, resulting in crustal thickening.     

Crustal structure of Tushka Region, Abu-Simbel, Egypt, inferred from spectral ratios of P waves of local earthquakes

The crustal structure of North Abu-Simbel area was studied using spectral ratios of short-period P waves. Three-component short period seismograms from the Masmas seismic station of the Egyptian National Seismic Network Stations were used. The Thomson-Haskell matrix formulation was applied for linearly elastic, homogeneous crustal layers. The obtained model suggests that the crust under the study region consists of a thin (0.8 km) superficial top layer with a P-wave velocity of 3.8±0.7 km/s and three distinct layers with a mean P-wave velocity of 6.6 km/s, overlaying the upper mantle with a P-wave velocity of 8.3 km/s (fixed). The results were obtained for 14 different earthquakes. The P-wave velocities of the three layers are: 5.8±0.6 km/s, 6.5±0.4 km/s and 7.2±0.3 km/s. The total depth to the Moho interface is 32±2 km. The crustal velocity model estimated using observations is relatively simple, being characterized by smooth velocity variations through the middle and lower crust and normal crustal thickness. The resultant crustal model is consistent with the model obtained from previous deep seismic soundings along the northern part of Aswan lake zone.     

Subduction and terrane collision stabilize the western Kaapvaal craton tectosphere 2.9 billion years ago

Integrative models of crust and mantle structure, age, and growth of the oldest continental nuclei—the Archean cratons—are critical to understanding the processes that stabilize continental lithosphere. For the Kaapvaal craton of southern Africa, conflicting ages of stabilization have been derived from studies of its crust and underlying mantle. New U-Pb zircon geochronological data from the western Kaapvaal craton reveal that two older (3.7 to 3.1 billion year old) continental masses, the Kimberley and Witwatersrand blocks, were juxtaposed by a significantly younger, previously unresolved episode of subduction and terrane collision between 2.93 and 2.88 billion years ago. Geological evidence indicates that convergence was accommodated by subduction beneath the Kimberley block, culminating in collisional suturing in the vicinity of the present-day Colesberg magnetic lineament. The timing of these convergent margin processes is further shown to correlate with the strong peak in Re-Os age distributions of Kimberley block mantle peridotites, eclogites, and eclogite-hosted diamonds. These data thus support the petrogenetic coupling of continental crust and lithospheric mantle through a model of continental arc magmatism, subduction zone mantle wedge processing and terminal collisional advective thickening to form Archean continental tectosphere.     

Velocity structure of the crust and upper mantle in Xingtai earthquake region and its adjacent area

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基于三重震相方法探测日本海俯冲区地幔转换带的速度结构

本文基于中国数字地震台网记录的发生于日本北海道地区的一次中源地震的三重震相资料研究了日本海俯冲区地幔转换带的速度结构．结果表明,该区域P波速度结构与S波速度结构的一致性整体上较强．冷的西太平洋俯冲板块导致410 km间断面出现了10 km的抬升,660 km间断面出现了25 km的下沉;410 km和660 km间断面之上均存在与俯冲板块相关的高速层;660 km间断面下方存在厚度为65 km的低速异常．纵横波波速比vP/vS值在210—400 km深度范围内偏低,约为1.827,体现出海洋板块低泊松比的特征;在560—685 km深度范围内,该值偏高,约为1.831,可能预示地幔转换带底部含有一定量的水．      

Modeling crustal structure of the south-eastern Fennoscandia

We present new seismic velocity models of the crust and uppermost mantle along two refraction and wide-angle reflection profiles in the southern Fennoscandia: the Pribalt and 1-EB profiles. Some new results obtained along the Coast and the Baltic Sea profiles are also presented. The intercept time method and ray tracing are used for the modeling. The study shows that the lateral variations are small in the velocity structure of?? the crust up to the depth of 20?C25 km. The most significant lateral variations are observed in the Moho discontinuity topography and in the seismic velocities in the lower crust. In Paleoproterosoic Svekofennian domain, besides the well-known Moho depression in southern Finland, another Moho depression is revealed in the region from the Gotland Island to the Gulf of Riga. We suggest that this depression can correspond to the unknown crustal unit (we call it the Gotland-Riga belt). The Moho depth increases from the average of 40?C45 km to 55 km in this belt. The Moho depression is filled by the matter with velocities of 6.8?C7.1 km/s. Deep faults inclined to the north and strong variations of the mantle velocities are typical for the uppermost mantle of the Gotland-Riga belt.     

用接收函数方法研究中国及邻区上地幔间断面的埋藏深度

使用中国及邻区的18个数字化地震台的宽频带三分向远震记录图,筛选计算得到了263条径向接收函数,并拾取了在41Okm和660km间断面上的透射转换震相P4S、P660S与P波的到时差.通过调整各台站之下的速度模型中这两个间断面的深度,使理论接收函数的P4S、P660S与P波的到时差与观测值相符,最终确定这两个间断面的实际埋藏深度.结果表明,各台站之下4km间断面的平均深度为403km,具有明显的横向不均匀性和区域性,其中北京台、西安台、兰州台和恩施台等的埋藏深度较浅,琼中台、CHTO等台较深.660km间断面的平均埋藏深度为663km,也存在明显的横向不均匀性,其中牡丹江台和MAJO台的较深,琼中台和HYB台的较浅.     

银川盆地岩石圈结构——长观测距宽角反射与折射剖面结果

利用2014年完成的穿过银川盆地人工源宽角反射与折射剖面的3炮长观测距资料,采用基于地震波走时反演方法的Rayinvr算法得到了研究区地壳和上地幔的速度结构.结果表明:研究区地壳厚度为42—48 km,莫霍面沿剖面展布形态呈现出东西两侧浅、中部较深的特征,莫霍面最深的区段位于贺兰山下方. P波速度沿剖面随着深度的增加呈正梯度增大,然而在深度约为90—103 km的岩石圈地幔中,识别出两组较明显的反射界面,两组界面之间并未发现P波速度随深度而显著增加,表明研究区下方存在与地球平均模型中速度随深度增加而增大不相符的速度结构,推测银川盆地下方岩石圈与软流圈之间可能存在速度过渡带.