Full Moment Tensor Variations and Isotropic Characteristics of Earthquakes in the Gulf of California Transform Fault System

The full moment tensor is a mathematical expression of six independent variables; however, on a routine basis, it is a common practice to reduce them to five assuming that the isotropic component is zero. This constraint is valid in most tectonic regimes where slip occurs entirely at the fault surface (e.g. subduction zones); however, we found that full moment tensors are best represented in transform fault systems. Here we present a method to analyze source complexity of earthquakes of different sizes using a simple formulation that relates the elastic constants obtained from independent studies with the angle between the slip and the fault normal vector, referred to as angle \( \theta \) ; this angle is obtained from the full moment tensors. The angle \( \theta \) , the proportion of volume change \( \left( k \right) \) and the constant volume (shear) component \( \left( T \right) \) are numerical indicators of complexity of the source; earthquakes are more complex as \( \theta \) deviates from \( \pi /2 \) or as T and k deviate from zero as well. These parameters are obtained from the eigensolution of the full moment tensor. We analyzed earthquakes in the Gulf of California that exhibit a clear isotropic component and we observed that the constant volume parameter T is independent of scalar moments, suggesting that big and small earthquakes are equally complex. In addition, simple models of one single fault are not sufficient to describe physically all the combinations of \( \theta \) in a source type plot. We also found that the principal direction of the strike of the Transform Fault System in the Gulf of California is following the first order approximation of the normal surface of the full moment tensor solution, whereas for deviatoric moment tensors the principal direction does not coincide with the strike of the Transform Fault System. Our observations that small and large earthquakes are equally complex are in agreement with recent studies of strike-slip earthquakes.     

Origin of metalliferous sediments from the East Pacific Rise

The distribution of several metals in East Pacific Rise sediments, when normalized to Al₂O₃, exhibit stronger maxima near the rise crest than when simply plotted on a carbonate-free basis. The similarity (1) between the distribution of metals in ridge sediments and previously measured mean heat flow values and (2) between the composition of crestal sediments and terrestrial ore bodies associated with greenstone belts, strongly supports a hydrothermal origin for rise crest sediments.     

Asymmetric mantle dynamics in the MELT region of the East Pacific Rise

The mantle electromagnetic and tomography (MELT) experiment found a surprising degree of asymmetry in the mantle beneath the fast-spreading, southern East Pacific Rise (MELT Seismic Team, Science 280 (1998) 1215–1218; Forsyth et al., Science 280 (1998) 1235–1238; Toomey et al., Science 280 (1998) 1224–1227; Wolfe and Solomon, Science 280 (1998) 1230–1232; Scheirer et al., Science 280 (1998) 1221–1224; Evans et al., Science 286 (1999) 752–756). Pressure-release melting of the upwelling mantle produces magma that migrates to the surface to form a layer of new crust at the spreading center about 6 km thick (Canales et al., Science 280 (1998) 1218–1221). Seismic and electromagnetic measurements demonstrated that the distribution of this melt in the mantle is asymmetric (Forsyth et al., Science 280 (1998) 1235–1238; Toomey et al., Science 280 (1998) 1224–1227; Evans et al., Science 286 (1999) 752–756) at depths of several tens of kilometers, melt is more abundant beneath the Pacific plate to the west of the axis than beneath the Nazca plate to the east. MELT investigators attributed the asymmetry in melt and geophysical properties to several possible factors: asymmetric flow passively driven by coupling to the faster moving Pacific plate; interactions between the spreading center and hotspots of the south Pacific; an off-axis center of dynamic upwelling; and/or anomalous melting of an embedded compositional heterogeneity (MELT Seismic Team, Science 280 (1998) 1215–1218; Forsyth et al., Science 280 (1998) 1235–1238; Toomey et al., Science 280 (1998) 1224–1227; Wolfe and Solomon, Science 280 (1998) 1230–1232; Evans et al., Science 286 (1999) 752–756). Here we demonstrate that passive flow driven by asymmetric plate motion alone is not a sufficient explanation of the anomalies. Asthenospheric flow from hotspots in the Pacific superswell region back to the migrating ridge axis in conjunction with the asymmetric plate motion can create many of the observed anomalies.     

Phosphorus accumulation rates in metalliferous sediments on the East Pacific Rise

Based on phosphorus, iron and manganese analyses in 16 cores (5 dated) from the crest and flanks of the East Pacific Rise and the Bauer Deep we estimate that phosphorus is being deposited about 20 times faster in metalliferous sediments near the rise crest than in adjacent flank deposits, and about 40 times faster on the crest than in the Bauer Deep. Almost all of the phosphorus on the rise crest is contained in poorly crystallized hydrothermal iron oxyhydroxides, supporting Berner's (1973) proposal of phosphate sorption by these phases. The phosphate is probably derived from seawater, but some hydrothermal contribution cannot be excluded at this time. Flux estimates indicate that metalliferous sedimentation could remove 15–40% of the pre-agricultural river input of dissolved phosphate.     

东太平洋海隆轴向热液流动的地震识别

洋中脊轴上的热液循环影响岩石层及上覆海水的化学性质,供养着化合生物群,也是岩石层向海水传递热量的媒介(Slater et al,1980;Stein and Stein,1994;Elderfield and Schultz,1996)。通常认为这个系统中的热液流起源于洋中脊扩张轴处,并由一些离扩张轴较远的断层补给(Lowelletal,1995;Kelley et al,2002;Fisher,2003),但热液系统的结构和规模通常不能直接观察到,而是通过由地球物理条件约束的热模型和地球化学模型推断得到的(Johnson et al,1993;Dunn et al,2000;Lowell and Yao,2002)。使用发生的微震也许能通过揭示热裂缝区说明热液的流动路径,在这些裂缝区域冷水从地壳热岩石中获得热量,另外,一些由岩浆及构造应力作用造成的裂隙增大了这些区域的孔隙度和渗透性。本文指出,东太平洋海隆上得到很好研究的热液喷口场之下的震源群集于一小尺度轴向不连续面附近的垂向管状区域和轴向岩浆房正上方的带内。该浅层管状群集相对于这一段洋脊上热液喷口的分布和温度的位置表明,热液补充量集中在那里是构造破裂引起渗...     

A226Ra section across the East Pacific Rise

Four vertical Ra profiles have been measured across the East Pacific Rise (EPR) from Callao to Tahiti. These profiles show that Ra in the deep water (below 2 km depth) increases toward the EPR. However, this increase does not necessarily indicate a Ra source on the EPR. The increase from Tahiti toward the EPR reflects the general trend of the Pacific Ra distribution. The decrease from the EPR eastward to the Peru Basin is probably due to the continental effect with higher sedimentation rates.The hydrography, especially potential temperature and oxygen, indicates significant differences below about 3 km depth between the east and west flanks of the EPR indicating the effect of the cold bottom water to the west of the EPR. The benthic front is identified at 3.9 km depth at the westernmost station near Tahiti. Silicate and salinity data are by no means unique and reflect a complicated local circulation and mixing pattern with a minor intrusion of the Antarctic Bottom Water from the south into the Peru Basin.The θ-Ra and Ra-Si relationships both indicate an enrichment of Ra in the deep water below 2 km depth probably due to input from the underlying sediments. Above 2 km depth, Ra covaries almost linearly with θ as well as Si, mimicking a stable conservative property. This suggests that the radiodecay rate is nearly balanced by the input rate within the water column between 1 and 2 km depth in which θ is linearly correlated withS.Simple vertical model calculations show that the in-situ production of Ra by particulate dissolution in the deep water is negligible within a reasonable range of upwelling rates from 2 to 12 m/yr. Thus the Ra profiles show a net decay effect and so the θ-Ra relations are not linear in the deep water. In fact, the composite θ-Ra plots show a break at 25 dpm/100 kg (at 2 km depth) rather than a smooth curve, while theθ-S plots are essentially linear. A maximum Ra production rate of about 8 × 10^?3 (dpm/100 kg) yr^?1 is obtained from all the profiles with minimum upwelling rates between 0.7 and 3.5 m/yr.     

Strontium and neodymium isotopes in hot springs on the East Pacific Rise and Guaymas Basin

We have determined the concentrations and isotopic compositions of Sr and Nd in hydrothermal fluids from 21°N, East Pacific Rise and Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. The purest solutions analyzed from 21°N exhibit a small range in Sr concentration between individual vents from 5.8 to 8.7 ppm, close to normal seawater Sr concentrations. They exhibit a small range in⁸⁷Sr⁸⁶Sr fromε_Sr(0) = −13.4 to −17.7, corresponding toε_Sr(0) ≈ −18 ± 2 in the pure hydrothermal end-member. These results indicate extensive but not complete isotopic exchange with Sr in the depleted oceanic crust (ε_Sr(0) = −31.8) and suggest that Sr concentrations in these solutions are buffered. In contrast, the concentration and isotopic composition of Nd in solutions show large variations between vents. The concentration of Nd ranges from 20 to 336 pg/g (6–100 times seawater Nd concentrations). The isotopic composition ranges fromε_Nd(0) = −3.6 (similar to Pacific seawater) to +7.9. Many samples show substantial contributions from MORB, but all haveε_Nd(0) well below MORB at this locality (ε_Nd(0) = +9.7) in spite of very large enrichments in Nd concentrations. While complete isotopic exchange withwater/rock≈ 2 or exchange with anomalous oceanic crust can explain the Sr data, the Nd data require exchange with a reservoir havingε_Nd(0) < Pacific seawater. Low-temperature reactions with metalliferous sediments on the ridge flanks may provide such a source. Both Sr and Nd in the Guaymas Basin solution are very different from21°N. ε_Sr(0) = +11.0 andε_Nd(0) = −11.4 and are consistent with the fluid exchanging Sr and Nd with heated sediments having a substantial component of old continental detritus. Some irregularities in the Nd isotopic data reported here indicate that there must be a problem of contamination for some ultra-low-level trace elements during sample collection and processing which requires further attention.Using a simple box model, the estimates for hydrothermal Nd fluxes are compared with fluxes which would be required to maintain the relatively radiogenic value ofε_Nd(0) ≈ −3 in the Pacific against the influx of more negative Antarctic waters (ε_Nd(0) ≈ −9). It is shown that the hydrothermal flux of Nd from mid-ocean ridges falls far short of that necessary to maintain the isotopic balance. This indicates that weathered material from volcanic terranes (ε_Nd(0) ≈ +7) is the most reasonable major source of radiogenic Nd in the Pacific.     

Dredged basalts from the western Nazca plate and the evolution of the East Pacific Rise

Ocean-floor basalts and glasses were recovered from three stations along the western Nazca plate, from a sublinear topographic feature believed to represent the proto-East Pacific Rise (EPR), and include abyssal tholeiites, FeTi-basalts and glasses, as well as transitional and little fractionated compositions. When compared with their coexisting fresh glasses, the FeTi-basalts have higher total alkalies, TiO₂ and MgO, and lower FeO^*, suggesting that they have also been affected by non-oxidative post-magmatic alteration processes. The FeTi-glasses form a remarkably uniform compositional group through space and time. A little fractionated composition having anMg-number= 73, similar to those reported from the Mathematician Ridge, has higher Na₂O and TiO₂, and slightly lower CaO than similar compositions from the slowly accreting Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The basalts and glasses reported here exhibit the compositional diversity expected for propagating rifts and probably represent more than one volcanic episode.Both geochemical and geophysical interpretations support the inference that the EPR grew from Miocene times by the progressive growth and propagation of mantle perturbations, leaving a remnant sublinear zone of rough topography characteristic of slower accretion as the trace of the proto-EPR. Continuing translations and rotations of axial segments are occurring along the EPR, probably in response to self-reorganizations of mantle flow patterns arising from rapid melting and depletion of the source regions. The data allow the inference that the youthful rift systems of the eastern Pacific are far from thermodynamic equilibrium as might be expected if such systems were to drive fundamental life processes.     

Chemistry of solutions from the 13°N East Pacific Rise hydrothermal site

Ten samples were recovered by the submersible “Cyana” submersible from two groups of hydrothermal vents located 2600 m deep along the East Pacific Rise at 13°N. The maximum measured temperature was 317°C and minimum pH 3.8. A systematic determination of major and trace elements has been carried out and mixing lines between a high-temperature component (HTC) and seawater are observed. The water chemistry of the HTC slightly differs for several elements at the two sites. This HTC is deprived of SO₄ and Mg and is greatly enriched in most other species. Maximum concentrations are (in units per kg):Cl = 0.72mol; Br = 1.1mmol; Na = 0.55mol; K = 29mmol; Rb = 14 μmol; Ca = 52mmol; Sr = 170 μmol; Mn = 750 μmol; Fe = 1mmol; Al = 15 μmol; Si = 21mmol. For many elements, the magnitude of the anomaly relative to seawater does not compare with the results obtained from the Galapagos or East Pacific Rise 21°N. The enrichment of cations relative to seawater is likely related to the huge Cl excess through charge balance. TheBr/Cl ratio is close to that for seawater. However, it is not clear whether the Cl excess is due to gas release or basalt hydration (formation of amphibole chlorite or epidote).P-T dependence of SiO₂ solubility suggests that water-rock interaction last occurred at a depth in excess of 1 km below the sea floor. A mixing line of⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr vs. Mg/Sr demonstrates that the HTCs have a nearly identical⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of 0.7041 for both sites. A water/rock ratio of about 5 is inferred, which differs from the 1.5 value obtained at 21°N.     

东太平洋北部洋中脊上地壳精细结构地震探测

海洋多道反射地震成像是研究大洋岩石圈结构、岩浆系统和热液活动等信息的重要手段.受限于缆长、水深和采集方式等因素, 水听器拖缆接收到的用于速度建模的壳内折射震相通常仅出现在较远偏移距, 同时仅利用走时信息反演获得的速度模型只含有长波长的结构信息, 严重制约了速度模型分辨率与地震成像效果.本文在传统初至波走时层析成像方法的基础上, 加入地震波场的向下延拓、全波形反演和逆时偏移成像, 发展了一套能显著提高洋中脊浅部结构分辨率的地震数据处理、建模与成像流程, 并成功应用到东太平洋北部洋中脊五条垂直于洋脊轴的代表测线中.速度模型显示上地壳2A和2B层分别表现为高和低速度梯度特征, 上地壳速度结构呈现不连续的低速异常特征, 且与断裂或热液活动信号具有较好的空间对应关系.同时, 地震成像也显示了2A/2B层存在明显的非均质性, 表明上地壳结构受到岩浆-构造-热液作用的共同影响.本研究不仅为建立快速扩张洋中脊三维岩浆-构造-热液地质模型提供了支撑, 同时为这套流程在其他研究区的应用提供了方法基础.

     

Radium and thorium isotopes in the surface waters of the East Pacific and coastal Southern California

A fiber extraction technique is used to concentrate Ra and Th isotopes from 1000 liters or more of seawater. Natural²²⁶Ra and²³⁴Th are used as yield tracers. In the equatorial Pacific the²²⁸Ra activity of surface water varies from 20 to 1 dpm/1000 kg and generally decreases away from continental shelf areas. Across the Peru Current System, this decrease is modeled as one-dimensional diffusion and indicates the possibility of two flow regimes with distinct characteristic mixing lengths and apparent eddy diffusivities of 10⁵ and 10⁷ cm²/s. The perturbing effects of advection and equatorial upwelling west of the Galapagos Islands are noted. Off the coast of Southern California a vertical²²⁸Ra distribution gives an apparent diffusivity of 1.6 cm²/s for the upper thermocline.²²⁶Ra concentrations near the coast appear to be higher than the open ocean values at comparable depths, which may reflect supply of this isotope from continental shelf sediments and/or upwelling. The insoluble daughter/soluble parent activity ratios²²⁸Th/²²⁸Ra and²³⁴Th/²³⁸U in the equatorial Pacific surface water display latitudinal trends which may be correlated with productivity variations. Near the coast of California these ratios reflect the differing oceanographic conditions north and south of Pt. Conception indicating a mean chemical removal time constant on the order of 4 months for Th and other highly reactive elements within the Southern California Bight. The²³²Th content of seawater sampled is less than 0.1 μg/1000 1; most of the published values for seawater²³²Th could well be too high. A comparison of the two methods of determining²²⁸Ra (via²²⁸Ac and via²²⁸Th) made on 64 seawater samples shows that the time delay required by the²²⁸Th method is more than compensated by its better analytical simplicity and precision.     

Excess 3He in deep water on the East Pacific Rise

Helium isotope measurements show that water on the crest and flanks of the East Pacific Rise has the highest enrichment in ³He so far observed in the oceans; the ³He/⁴He ratio anomaly relative to atmospheric helium is + 32% at the mid-depth maximum in the profiles. The corresponding ³He solubility anomaly relative to saturation with atmospheric helium is +50%. These data indicate that active sea-floor spreading sites on the crests of the mid-ocean rises are the sources of primordial helium injected into the ocean from the earth's interior. The ³He/⁴He ratio in this flux is approximately 1.6 × 10^?5, about 11 times the atmospheric ratio of 1.4 × 10^?6. The total flux of ³He into the atmosphere is 4.6 atoms cm^?2 earth-surface sec^?1, most of which (4.0 atoms cm^?2 sec^?1) is supplied by the oceanic flux. The corresponding atmospheric residence time for ³He is 10⁶ years, which, within the large uncertainties of supply and demand (thermal escape), is consistent with the requirement for a steady state.     

Helium-3 and manganese at the 21°N East Pacific Rise hydrothermal site

Water samples collected at the 21°N hydrothermal site on the East Pacific Rise crest, including Deep-Tow and hydrocast samples collected in 1977 and three hot vent water samples collected recently with the submersible “Alvin”, contain significant additions of³He,⁴He, and Mn. Although the vent water collections were at least 50-fold diluted with ambient seawater, they are up to 53 times enriched in³He and 7.4 times enriched in⁴He relative to saturated seawater, with concentrations of total dissolvable manganese (TDM) up to 310 μg/kg.³He and⁴He covary in the vent samples, with³He/⁴He about 8 times the atmospheric ratio, reflecting a mantle helium source. In contrast to the helium isotopes the Mn/³He ratio in the vent samples is variable, ranging from 4.3 × 10⁴ up to 1.0 × 10⁵ g/cm³. Profiles of³He/⁴He and TDM in the water column at 21°N show a sharp maximum ofδ(³He) = 47%and TDM= 0.69 μg/kg, much higher than the average values of 34% and 0.2 μg/kg for the deep water in this region. This spike in³He and Mn occurs at 2400 m depth, 200 m above the level of the 21°N vents, and 100 m higher than any local bathymetry, evidence for upward transport of the hydrothermal discharge via rising plumes of hot vent water. Two of the 21°N Deep-Tow samples associated with small (?0.010°C) temperature anomalies hadδ(³He) = 38%and TDM= 0.28 and 0.58 μg/kg, also slightly elevated relative to background. The Deep-Tow and hydrocast samples have lower Mn/³He ratios than average vent samples due to Mn removal by scavenging. Comparison of vent samples and water column measurements at 21°N indicate that the pure vent water could be detected using³He and Mn even when diluted ～10⁵ times with seawater, confirming that these two tracers are extremely sensitive indicators of submarine hydrothermal activity.     

Sulfur isotope systematics at the 21°N site,East Pacific Rise

Hydrogen sulfide in hydrothermal vent fluid at the 21°N site is enriched in ³⁴S relative to Mid-Ocean Ridge basalts, probably by addition of H₂S reduced from seawater sulfate by FeO-bearing basalt. Metalliferous sulfides are depleted in ³⁴S relative to the fluid from which they apparently precipitated, the degree of depletion reflecting the microenvironment in which each mineral crystallised and/or kinetic effects. Isotopic compositions of coexisting sulfides in a basal mound are consistent with equilibration at around 445°C, though heating to such a high temperature seems unlikely. Similar sulfides in a black smoker and in a dead chimney are out of isotopic equilibrium at any temperature, apparently reflecting a complex series of replacement mineralisations and post-depositional oxidation, respectively.     

Sr and Nd isotopes in basalts from the East Pacific Rise: significance for mantle heterogeneity

Isotopic data for Sr and Nd from fresh glassy East Pacific Rise basalts suggest that this part of the suboceanic mantle is characterized by subtle but distinct large-scale regional isotopic variability which may reflect differences between cells of the convecting mantle. In spite of a systematic N—S change in spreading rate of a factor of three along the sampled portion of the EPR, no correlation is observed between spreading rate and range of isotopic composition, indicating that the regional variations override homogenization effects which may be correlated with rate of magma generation and hence spreading rate. There is no clear signature in our data of effects from the postulated global “Dupal Anomaly” [30,31]. However, for a restricted ridge segment at the latitude of Easter Island, anomalously high⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and low¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd occur, coupled with high incompatible element concentrations. These features are most easily understood as being the result of inclusion of a “plume” component in these ridge basalts.     

Lead-strontium isotopic variations along the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: a comparative study

We have determined the Pb and Sr isotopic compositions in a number of fresh young oceanic basalts from the East Pacific Rise (between 20°N and 21°S latitudes), and from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (between 65°N and 10°N).The results confirm the PbSr isotopic correlation for mid-ocean ridges basalts obtained by Allègre et al. [1], Cohen et al. [2], Dupréand Allègre [3], and the correlation between isotopic variation and the compatible trace elements ratios variation [1].A comparison between the Atlantic and Pacific results reveals that there is a wider range of values for the Atlantic than for the Pacific. After filtering the short wavelengths, a good correlation is obtained between long-wavelength bathymetric and isotopic variations for the Atlantic.The preferred model proposed to explain these differences involves the constant presence of hot spots under ridges. On slow-spreading ridges like the Atlantic, the hot spots signature is clearly visible in both bathymetry and isotopic ratios. On fast-spreading centers, the hot spot signature in both the bathymetry and isotopic signature may be diluted by the rapid supply of material coming from the asthenosphere.However, an alternative explanation for which no hot spot influence is found on the East Pacific Rise cannot be definitely ruled out.In two occurrences, south of the Hayes fracture zone (Atlantic), large isotopic heterogeneities are observed within a single dredge. This does not contradict the concept of regional isotopic regularities, but suggests that blob injection and source mixing may be observed at very different scales under the ridges.     

Variations in crustal structure on the East Pacific Rise crest: A travel time inversion approach

Systematic travel time inversion techniques have been applied to first arrival travel times from a number of seismic refraction profiles on the crest and flanks of the East Pacific Rise to generate bounds on the possible velocity-depth distributions. The greatest variability in structure occurs within 5 Myr of the rise crest. The generally similar character of the bounds on the velocity distributions for ages greater than 5 Myr indicates that the most rapid aging occurs within 5 Myr of the crest, though the mantle velocity increases systematically with age. The nature of the bounds on the velocity distribution for the range of velocities associated with layer 3 requires that the velocity distribution within layer 3 increase with depth.     

East Pacific Rise at latitude 21°N: isotopic composition and origin of the hydrothermal sulphur

The sulphur isotope composition of 16 pyrite and chalcopyrite samples from recent sulphide deposits (“Cyana”—project RITA) and active sulphide mineralisation (“Alvin”—project RISE) associated with hydrothermal sources at 380±30°C on the East Pacific Rise at latitude 21°N have been measured. The³⁴S/³²S ratios are relatively uniform and essentially identical for both sites: δ³⁴S=+1.4to3.0%. (CDT), mean +2.1‰. The sulphides were analysed after the majority of the very numerous micro-inclusions of anhydrite had been removed.Two independent physico-chemical analyses of the data demonstrate that about 90% of the sulphur was leached from the basaltic host rocks by the circulating seawater-hydrothermal fluids.     

A high-temperature hydrothermal deposit on the East Pacific Rise near 7°N

A SEABEAM survey of the East Pacific Rise (EPR) led to the selection of several sites having structural characteristics favorable for hydrothermal activity. Dredging of such an area located at 7°N on the EPR resulted in the recovery of sulfides, oxides and fresh basalt. Chemical analyses and isotopic compositions showed that the recovered pyrites were probably precipitated directly from hot vent hydrothermal waters. Chemical analyses and isotopic composition of manganese-iron oxides indicated that they too were of hydrothermal origin. ²¹⁰Pb/Pb measurements yielded ages of 90 ± 10years for the deposits. This site may still be undergoing hydrothermal activity.     

Local axial migration and spreading rate variations,East Pacific Rise, 31°S

Mapping and analysis of marine magnetic anomalies generated during the past 3.78 m.y. at the East Pacific Rise crest near 31°S reveals a history of ongoing small-scale migration of the spreading center. The axis first became curved and then broke when the curvature became too severe, forming a 10-km offset. The offset healed rapidly and the topographic axis of the rise is now continuous and essentially linear. Sea-floor spreading has occurred asymmetrically in this area with east and west flank rates of 86 and 77 mm/yr, respectively, since 2.41 m.y. ago. Total spreading rates show an overall decline from 176 to 145 mm/yr prior to the Jaramillo event, 0.9 m.y. ago. For the last 0.7 m.y. the total spreading rate has been 162 mm/yr.