青藏高原东北隅似三联点构造特征

在大陆内部,对于一定尺度的构造块体,似三联点构造是一种普通的构造形式。由于大陆内部块体旋转的普遍性,似三联点构造可形成顺旋型和逆旋型两种构造型式。     

青藏高原东北缘至鄂尔多斯地块壳幔电性结构及构造变形研究

为了获取青藏高原东北缘至鄂尔多斯地块的壳幔电性结构,研究祁连造山带、鄂尔多斯地块及六盘山构造带的构造变形,布设一条甘肃陇西至陕西黄陵的近东西向大地电磁测深剖面,获取了91个大地电磁测深点的响应.经过对全剖面观测资料的数据处理、分析及二维反演,获得了剖面壳幔电性结构模型.研究结果表明：剖面横向可划分为三个区块,分别对应祁连造山带、六盘山构造带与鄂尔多斯地块;祁连造山带东段可能残存沟弧盆体系的构造格架,青藏高原北东向生长可能是在这一先存格架上的叠加与改造;六盘山构造带壳幔结构复杂,以中地壳拆离断层为界,上地壳发育拆离断层系统而下地壳挤压缩短增厚;鄂尔多斯地块成层性较好,地块总体较为稳定,但局部经历了与地幔上涌相关的物质与结构再造.     

青藏高原构造特征与邻区受力状态

本文利用构造物理模拟实验方法,结合地震与地质资料分析,对青藏高原抬升机制,抬升形式以及由于这一运动过程所引起周围地区的变形规律等进行了研究。通过分析认为前缘呈楔状的印度板块插入青藏高原下部,除使青藏高原挤压抬升外,同时沿先成几条大的北西向断裂产生向东—东南方向走滑,这对研究亚洲区域构造尤其是现代构造运动具有重要意义     

旋卷构造应力场与鄂尔多斯地块周缘断裂系成因探讨

当外力的合力不通过活动地块的质量中心时,该地块将产生旋扭运动,运动的结果在其周边形成旋卷构造应力场．在该应力场作用下,与主应力作用面方向一致的断裂将由作用面的力学性质决定其活动方式．与主张应力作用面一致的断裂将产生张破裂,长期作用下将形成断陷盆地;与主压应力作用面一致的断裂将产生逆冲或逆掩活动,或形成褶皱．地质资料表明,长期稳定的华北地块在早第三纪初期解体,其中晋冀陕地块发生过逆时针转动,形成其周缘断陷系;上新世时晋冀陕地块解体,地块东边界西移,出现山西地堑系,形成鄂尔多斯地块．晋冀陕地块周缘的一些主要断裂的构造形迹及力学性质可用旋转构造应力场的主应力作用面解释．     

巴彦浩特断裂北段晚第四纪活动特征及其区域地震构造意义

巴彦浩特断裂位于阿拉善地块与鄂尔多斯地块相互作用的边界构造带上,其晚第四纪活动特征和古地震数据对全面理解贺兰山周边区域地震构造和地震危险性具有重要意义,为此在研究相对薄弱的巴彦浩特断裂北段开展了断错地貌和古地震槽探研究。观测显示巴彦浩特断裂阿拉善左旗以北段以右旋走滑活动为主兼具逆倾滑,断层西盘相对抬升,在浅表形成半正花状构造组合。年代（56.28±4.04）~（82.2±5.78）ka的冲洪积地貌面上冲沟断错137 m,并在东侧形成断塞塘地貌,估计断层右旋走滑速率为1.67~2.43 mm/a。探槽揭示了3次具有显著地表逆倾滑破裂的强震事件,时间分别为（56.28±4.04）~（55.33±3.04）、（32.79±2.22）~（13.76±1.1）、（13.76±1.1）~（7.86±0.43）ka,逆倾滑量分别为0.44、0.35、0.29 m。与前人在巴彦浩特断裂南段的古地震研究进行对比,可知这3次古地震可能仅为部分事件记录。结合已有研究成果建立了贺兰山周边区域地震构造模型,贺兰山西侧右旋走滑的巴彦浩特断裂强震发震能力不容忽视,贺兰山两侧盆地不同性质断裂系共同构成了阿拉善地块与鄂尔多斯地块的活动边界构造带。     

青藏高原东北隅弧形构造区现代中小地震密集区与历史强震的关系探讨

青藏高原东北隅地区位于青藏高原、鄂尔多斯和阿拉善三大块体交汇部位,发育一组以逆走滑活动为主的弧形断裂系,其新活动性强,历史及现代强震频发,是探讨现代中小地震密集区与历史强震关联性的理想地区,也是检验和发展小震密集区值方法及其适用条件的有利地区.本文采用甘肃省地震局对该区1970年以来1～5级地震仪器监测目录,利用网格点...     

青藏高原东缘及邻区强震构造:专辑序言

青藏高原东缘由多个次级构造单元组成了独特的“多层次挤出-旋转活动构造体系”,是调节高原物质向东挤出的构造转换带,发育了高密度的活动断裂,强震频度高且强度大,而且地质地貌复杂,成为我国地震灾害问题最为突出的地区之一。近年来,伴随全国地震灾害风险普查、城市活断层探测、地震科学实验场建设、工程场地的地震安全性评价以及重大工程与城镇区的活断层鉴定与地壳稳定性评价等工作的深入开展,高精度遥感、构造地貌、古地震和第四纪年代学等方法的广泛应用,显著提升了青藏高原东缘及邻区强震构造的调查研究程度。为了及时交流这方面的最新研究成果,支撑区域防震减灾及重要工程和基础设施建设的地质安全评价等工作,《地震科学进展》编辑部组织了“青藏高原东缘及邻区强震构造”成果专辑,征集了活断层与地震、甘肃积石山地震以及相关领域的研究综述等代表性学术论文20余篇,本期《青藏高原东缘及邻区强震构造专辑Ⅰ》优选了10篇论文,后续还将推出《青藏高原东缘及邻区强震构造专辑Ⅱ》,希望这些成果可提升对区域强震活动特征与孕震构造机制的理解,并为区域强震危险性分析和有效防范强震灾害风险提供科学依据。     

张家口断裂第四纪构造变形与活动性研究

本文根据野外详实资料对张家口断裂的构造变形和活动性进行分析与研究,结果表明:断裂由西、中、东3段组成,各段多由北西向和近东西向2组多条次级断层组成,总体呈北西西走向展布,长达70km,控制着张家口及附近的第四纪构造演化和地貌发育;北西向断层构成断裂的主体,为高角度的逆(或正)走滑断层,近东西向断层较短,表现为正倾滑,第四纪期间2组断层持续活动,以脆性变形为特征;断裂端部段落与北东向断裂交汇,活动性较弱,构造表现不甚清楚,中部段落活动强烈,晚更新世以来单条断层的平均垂直活动速率大于0.07—0.30mm/a,总的垂直活动速率可能达到1.33mm/a。     

青藏高原的地震构造与地震活动

根据地震地热说原理和中国西部的大地构造资料,讨论了青藏高原的地震构造活动模式及地震活动特征,认为兴都库什地震柱和缅甸地震柱是控制青藏高原构造运动和地震活动的主因,青藏高原深达70km的巨厚地壳是内陆地区壳内强震频发的有利构造条件,利用35km以下青藏高原的下地壳地震和周边地区的壳下地震活动动态,参考历史震例,可以为研究区内的壳内强震活动与火山活动提供可能的活动强度、活动地点及大致活动时段等前兆性指标,并取得了初步成效。利用地震柱概念对青藏高原地震构造活动模式的解释似乎更加贴近青藏高原的地震活动特征,可以更加合理地解释壳内强震或者火山发生的成因,也可以预测未来几年内地震柱及其影响区的活动趋势。     

西藏高原震中分布与活动断层

西藏地区大部分地震震中分布有良好的方向性,除南部地区沿近东西向的喜马拉雅构造带分布外,其它大部分震中主要沿北东、北西和近南北三个方向密集分布,在平面上,与晚第四世纪以来西藏高原的主要活动断层带方向一致。     

THE COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH OF RECENT GRAVITY AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN NORTHEASTERN EDGE OF THE TIBETAN PLATEAU

In this study, we systematically analyzed the relationship between regional gravity changes, 3D crustal deformation, regional tectonic environment and strong earthquakes based on the relative gravity measurements(2011-2014), GPS data and the background vertical deformation from the leveling measurements conducted from 1970 to 2011. Subsequently, we further characterized the temporal-spatial patterns and discussed the mechanism of regional gravity changes and the crustal deformation. The results can be summarized as follows:1)The regional gravity changes, the GPS-derived horizontal deformation and the vertical deformational obtained from leveling data showed a close spatial relationship:The gravity increased along with the direction of horizontal movement, and the gravity decreased with the crustal uplift and vice versa, which reflects the inherited characteristics of neotectonic activities. 2)The crustal deformation was closely related to the active faults. The contour lines of gravity changes and vertical deformation were generally along with the Qilian-Haiyuan Fault(the strike is NWW), and the crustal horizontal deformation showed left-lateral strike slip motion near the Qilian-Haiyuan Fault. 3)The strong earthquakes usually occur in the active faults where intensive gravity change and vertical and/or horizontal deformation occurred. The extrusion deformation, surface compression rate and gravity changes were obvious near the epicenter of 2016 Menyuan earthquake. The 2013 Minxian-Zhangxian M_S6.6 earthquake occurred in the direction-turning area of intense gravity gradient zone and the transitional area of surface compression and vertical deformation. The first author of this paper has made a medium-term forecast before the Minxian and Menyuan earthquakes, especially the location of the earthquake. Based on the above understandings, we emphasized that:there are still possibilities of strong or huge earthquakes within medium-long term in the areas of crustal deformation anomalies in the study region.     

青藏高原东北缘-鄂尔多斯地壳上地幔地震层析成像研究

根据横跨青藏高原东北缘—鄂尔多斯地区的流动宽频带地震台阵和区域地震台网的走时数据,利用地震层析成像方法研究了该地区400km深度范围内地壳上地幔的P波速度结构. 结果表明：青藏高原东北缘—鄂尔多斯地区地壳上地幔结构呈明显的横向不均匀性. 这种不均匀性体现在不同块体之间,同时也存在于块体内部;青藏高原东北缘上地幔P波平均速度低,而鄂尔多斯地块的P波平均速度高,这与两个地块的地质构造活动特征相吻合. 在青藏高原东北缘与鄂尔多斯地块之间的上地幔存在宽约200km的过渡带,该过渡带在地表的界限在兰州—海原之间,在上地幔表现为向东45°左右的倾斜条带,基本结构特征表现为高速与低速物质的混杂;青藏高原内部的柴达木地块平均速度偏低,而祁连地块的上地幔的平均速度偏高,两者相差约8髎;在泽库、兰州和海原地区的上地幔顶部有明显的低速体侵入特征.     

SYSTEMATIC OFFSET OF BEDROCK CHANNELS ALONG ACTIVE STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS ON THE EASTERN TIBETAN PLATEAU

Offset river is one of the characteristic landforms along active strike-slip fault. Whereas because of various factors such as natural meander, river capture, etc, difficulties exist while interpreting slip motion and offset amount using landforms of offset rivers. In this study, we introduced the systematic offset of bedrock channels as a method to analyze offset rivers along strike-slip fault. Systematic offset of bedrock channels is the result of coupling between tectonic process and surface process. It also describes the phenomenon of synchronous accumulation both of the offset amount and the upstream length because of head-ward erosion. Based on the interpretation, measuring and statistics of the offset river landforms, it is found that systematic offset of bedrock channels have developed along the Ganzi-Yushu, Xianshuihe and eastern Kunlun fault zones on the eastern Tibetan plateau. There is a linear relationship between the upstream length (L), measured from the headwater to the fault, and the offset amount (D):D=a·L. This study provides useful implications to the role of strike-slip faults during the geomorphic evolution of the eastern Tibetan plateau.     

HOLOCENE LEFT-LATERAL SLIP RATE OF THE LENGLONGLING FAULT,NORTHEASTERN MARGIN OF THE TIBETAN PLATEAU

The Lenglongling Fault(LLLF) is a major active left-lateral strike-slip fault along the northeastern margin of the Tibetan plateau. Fault slip rate is of great significance for researching the dynamics of tectonic deformation in NE Tibetan plateau and understanding the activity and seismic risk of the fault. However, slip rate of the LLLF, which remains controversial, is limited within~3~24mm/a, a relatively broad range. Taking Niutougou site(37.440 2°N, 102.094 0°E)and Chailong site(37.447 3°N, 102.063 0°E) in the upstream of Talihua gully in Menyuan County, Qinghai Province as the research objects, where faulted landform is typical, we analyzed the displacement evolution model and measured the slip amounts by back-slip of the faulted landform using high-resolution DEM from Terrestrial LiDAR and high-precision satellite images of Google Earth, and by collecting and testing samples from stratigraphic pit excavated in the faulted landform surface and stripping fresh stratigraphic section, we determined the abandonment age of the surface. Holocene slip rate obtained from Niutougou site and Chailong site is(6.4±0.7)mm/a and(6.6±0.3)mm/a, respectively, which have a good consistency. Taking into account the error range of the slip rate, the left-lateral slip rate of the LLLF is(6.6±0.8)mm/a since Holocene, which is between the previons results from geological method, also within the slip rate range of 4.2~8mm/a from InSAR, but slightly larger than that from GPS((4.0±1.0)mm/a). Late Quaternary slip rate of Qilian-Haiyuan fault zone, which displays an arc-shape distribution, turns to be the largest in LLLF region. The most intensive uplift in the LLLF region of the NE Tibetan plateau confirms the important role of the LLLF in accommodating the eastward component of movement of Tibetan plateau relative to the Gobi-Ala Shan block from one side.     

MOMENT DEFICITS ON THE MAJOR FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ASSESSMENT IN THE EASTERN HIMALAYAN SYNTAXIS

The Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis(EHS)is a critical region for studying the tectonic evolution of Tibetan plateau, which was affected by the intense seismic activities. We use the theory of moment balance, GPS velocities and historical earthquake records to analyze the moment deficits in the EHS, assess the future seismicity and further to predict the recurrence interval of the 1950 Chayu M_S8.6 earthquake. We first collected multiple sets of GPS velocity fields and combined them to reduce the systematic bias. Then a micro-blocks model, constrained by GPS velocities, was built by TDEFNODE software to simultaneously invert the fault elastic strain parameters and rigid motion parameters based on the grid research and simulated annealing methods. The long-term slip rates on the faults were further estimated by the differential motions between the neighboring blocks. The results show that the nearly NS dextral strike-slip faults, Naga Fault and Sagaing Fault, slip with the average rates of ~10.6 and ~16.6mm/a, which are consistent with the lateral extrusion in the Tibetan plateau. However, the Main Frontal Thrust shows a distinguished sinistral strike-slip feature(6~10mm/a), possibly caused by the NNE pushing from the Indian plate to the Eurasian plate. On the other hand, because the EHS is located in frontal area of the collision between Indian and Eurasian plate, most faults show thrusting feature. The most obvious one is the Mishimi Fault, slipping with the rate of 23.3mm/a, implying that the convergence rate of the Indo-European plates is largely absorbed by this fault. The moment accumulation rate in the EHS is higher than the average rate in the Tibetan plateau and the total moment accumulation is(1.15±0.03)×10²² N·m in the last 200a. About 59.7% and 21.6% of the moment accumulation rate concentrate on the Main Frontal Thrust and Mishimi Fault. Second, we selected the earthquake records occurring on the upper crust since 1800AD to analyze the moment release in the EHS based on the data from the International Seismological Centre, United States Geological Survey, and catalogue of historical strong earthquakes in China and some other previous studies. In addition, the Global Centroid Moment Tensor Project and linear regression method were adopted to estimate the relationship between body wave magnitude(m_b), surface wave magnitude(M_S), local magnitude(M_L)and the moment(M₀). Then we further estimated the total fault moment release in the EHS, (5.50±2.54)×10²¹N·m, which is significantly lower than the total moment accumulation. About 79.2% of the moment release occurs on the Mishimi Fault, this is because the 1950 M_S8.6 Chayu earthquake is assumed to have ruptured on this fault. Finally, the present-day moment deficits on the faults in the EHS were calculated by the differences between the moment accumulation and release, which represent the possibility to produce earthquakes on the upper crust faults in the future. The largest moment deficit was found on the Main Frontal Thrust near Bhutan, which is able to rupture with M_W8.1+. Similarly, earthquakes with M_W7.5+ and M_W7.3+ have the potentials to occur on the Naga Fault and the Jiali Fault near Tongmai. However, the future earthquake scales may be less than M_W7.1 on the remaining faults. Moderate minor earthquakes are the main activity in the area near the Yarlung Zangbo Suture zone and the southern Sagaing Fault. Although the Chayu M_S8.6 earthquake occurred near the Mishimi Fault and the eastern MFT, the earthquake risk on those two faults cannot be ignored. Meanwhile, no matter which fault produced the Chayu earthquake, its recurrence will likely be 660a to 1 030a.     

青藏高原东北缘晚第四纪块体划分与运动态势研究

根据地壳厚度、重磁场特征、晚第四纪活动断裂、地貌差异、断陷盆地、地震活动差异等 ,将研究区作了一、二级块体的划分 ,其中一级块体 7个 ,二级块体 33个。一级块体平面上多数呈长条形 ,剖面上呈梯形、倒梯形 ,少数为多边形、三角形。二级块体平面上多数呈菱形 ,剖面上呈叠瓦状上冲形 ,少数呈条形或三角形。块体的主要运动形式有 :水平挤压、垂直升降、流展和旋转。块体运动受地壳“压缩 -挤出 -旋转”机制控制 ,即地壳块体受到挤压后产生强烈收缩 ,随后产生地壳块体隆起并产生向东的侧向挤出 ,并在挤出过程中产生块体反时针方向旋转。这一结果对“高分辨率地形变的观测研究和地震预报”有重要的科学意义     

THE NORTHWARD GROWTH OF THE NORTHEASTERN TIBETAN PLATEAU IN LATE CENOZOIC: IMPLICATIONS FROM APATITE (U-Th)/He AGES OF LONGSHOU SHAN

Longshou Shan, located at the southern edge of the Alxa block, is one of the outermost peripheral mountains and the northeasternmost area of the northeastern Tibetan plateau. In recent years, through geochronology, thermochronology, magnetic stratigraphy and other methods, a large number of studies have been carried out on the initiation time of major faults, the exhumation history of mountains and the formation and evolution of basins in the northeastern Tibet Plateau, the question of whether and when the northeastward expansion of the northeastern Tibet Plateau has affected the southern part of the Alxa block has been raised. Therefore, the exhumation history of Longshou Shan provides significant insight on the uplift and expansion of the Tibetan plateau and their dynamic mechanism. The Longshou Shan, trending NWW, is the largest mountain range in the Hexi Corridor Basin, and its highest peak is more than 3 600m(with average elevation of 2800m), where the average elevation of Hexi Corridor is 1 600m, the relative height difference between them is nearly 2200m. This mountain is bounded by two parallel thrust faults: The North Longshou Shan Fault(NLSF)and the South Longshou Shan Fault(SLSF), both of them trends NWW and has high angle of inclination(45°~70°)but dips opposite to each other. The South Longshou Shan Fault, located in the northern margin of the Hexi Corridor Basin, is the most active fault on the northeastern plateau, and controls the uplift of Longshou Shan.Due to its lower closure temperature, the lower-temperature thermochronology method can more accurately constrain the cooling process of a geological body in the upper crust. In recent years, the low-temperature thermochronology method has been used more and more in the study of the erosion of orogenic belts, the evolution of sedimentary basins and tectonic geomorphology. In this study, the apatite (U-Th)/He(AHe) method is used to analyze the erosion and uplift of rocks on the south and north sides of Longshou Shan. 11 AHe samples collected from the south slope exhibit variable AHe ages between~8Ma and~200Ma, the age-elevation plot shows that before 13~17Ma, the erosion rate of the Longshou Shan is very low, and then rapid erosion occurs in the mountain range, which indicates that the strong uplift of Longshou Shan occurred at 13~17Ma BP, resulting in rapid cooling of the southern rocks. In contrast, 3 AHe ages obtained from the north slope are older and more concentrated ranging from 220Ma BP to 240Ma BP, indicating that the north slope can be seen as a paleo-isothermal surface and the activity of the north side is weak. The results of thermal history inverse modeling show that the South Longshou Shan Fault was in a tectonic quiet period until the cooling rate suddenly increased to 3.33℃/Ma at 14Ma BP, indicating that Longshou Shan had not experienced large tectonic events before~14Ma BP.
We believe that under the control of South Longshou Shan Fault, the mountain is characterized by a northward tilting uplift at Mid-Miocene. Our results on the initial deformation of the Longshou Shan, in combination with many published studies across the northeastern margin of the Tibetan plateau, suggest that the compression strain of the northeastern margin of the Tibetan plateau may expand from south to north, and the Tibetan plateau has expanded northeastward to the southern margin of the Alxa block as early as Mid-Miocene, making Longshou Shan the current structural and geomorphic boundary of the northeastern plateau.     

PRELIMINARY APPLICATION OF FOCAL MECHANISM SOLUTIONS OF SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZE EARTHQUAKES TO FAULT STABILITY ANALYSIS IN THE SOUTHEASTERN TIBETAN PLATEAU

Analysis of stress state of faults is helpful to understand crustal mechanical properties and seismicity. In the paper, we invert the horizontal crustal stress field in the southeastern Tibetan plateau using focal mechanism solutions of small and medium-size earthquakes, and apply them to estimate the stability of regional major faults. Firstly, we collect focal mechanism solutions of small and medium-sized earthquakes in the southeastern Tibetan plateau. The dataset includes more than 1 000 focal mechanism solutions in the past twenty years. Magnitudes of these earthquakes vary from M3.0 to M6.0. Most of the focal mechanism solutions were determined using waveform inversion technique. Although most of focal mechanism solutions in the southeastern Tibetan plateau are strike-slip faulting, their spatial pattern is different in sub-regions. Normal faulting earthquakes mainly occurred in the western Sichuan region, reverse faulting earthquakes mainly occurred in the boundary zone between the Tibetan plateau and the South China craton, and strike-slip faulting earthquakes mainly occurred in the central and southern Yunnan region. Next, we settle on a mesh with grid spacing of 0.5° in longitude and latitude in the region and invert the horizontal crustal stress field at each grid point. Spatial variation of the maximum principal stress axis in the southeastern Tibetan plateau shows a clockwise rotation around the eastern Himalaya syntax. The azimuth of maximum compressional stress axis is about 88.1° in the western Sichuan region, about 124.6° in the South China craton, and about 21.6° in the western and southern Yunnan region. The azimuth of regional maximum compressional stress is nearly parallel to the direction of terrain elevation gradient, and that of the minimum compressional stress is nearly parallel to the tangential direction of the topographic elevation contours. The spatial pattern reflects the control role of gravity spreading of the Tibetan plateau on the regional horizontal stress field. Finally, we analyzed regional fault stability based on these collected focal mechanism solutions. The fault instability parameter (I) is defined based on the Mohr-Coulomb criterion and indicates the degree of fault approximating to rupture. The instability parameters on fourteen major faults in the southeastern Tibetan plateau were calculated. Our results show that the stability of the Lianfeng-Zhaotong Fault is the lowest before 2014 in the region, which indicates the fault zone is close to rupture at that time. Our results provide a new useful tool to assess regional seismic potential using dense focal mechanism solutions.     

3D P-WAVE VELOCITY STRUCTURE AT THE NORTHEASTERN MARGIN OF ORDOS BLOCK

Using the 7 100 absolute first arrivals of P waves and 91 513 relative P arrival times of 726 events at the northeastern margin of the Ordos block since 2009, the 3D fine structure of P wave velocity within the depth of 15km in the crust was inverted by the double difference seismic tomography method. The results show that there exist obvious high-speed continuous bodies in the northwest of the study area, and their lateral areas increase gradually with depth, while the velocity of east and south is relatively low. The velocity inhomogeneity exists and differs at different depths. The lateral differences of velocity are related to seismicity and faults. The 5~15km depth profile shows that earthquakes tend to occur in the area with relatively high velocity or high speed transition zones, which to some extent reflects the fragility of regional crustal media and the strong differential movement of faults in vertical and horizontal directions where the crust body is easy to absorb and store strain energy and generate major earthquakes. A "Y"-shape low-velocity channel is present in the lower crust around Liangcheng, corresponding to the NW-trending Heilaoyao-Shahukou fault set, which may reveal the migration path of the Late Tertiary-Quaternary basalt eruption. The Helingeer M6.2 earthquake in 1976 was related to the formation of the locking section of the thermal welding in this area. The three-dimensional fine structure of P wave velocity presented in this paper provides intuitive seismological evidence for physical and chemical properties of crustal media and the deep tectonic environment of earthquake preparation.