Tectonics and Evolution of Coronae on Venus: Preliminary Results of Tectonophysical Modeling

The formation of annular features on Venus, the so-called coronae, is modeled. It is common practice to associate their formation with the uplift and relaxation of hot mantle diapirs. We managed to partially reproduce the topography and structural pattern of the initial stage of corona evolution, a radially fractured dome, by lifting and lowering a piston under a layer of sand with consistent oil or moist clay. We failed to model a dense radial fracturing, which is typical of the earliest stage of corona evolution. We were able to reproduce the necessary attribute of coronae, concentric structures, which are commonly assumed to be formed at the stage of dome relaxation. Their formation mechanism in our experiments can serve only as a partial analog of the processes that produce corona rims. There is an obvious need to use more accurate models. Nevertheless, our modeling shows that the brittle deformations manifest themselves more clearly than do the plastic ones in the formation of dome-shaped uplift during the generation of natural coronae. The modeling also shows that the pattern of deformation within the dome-shaped uplift depends to some extent on the relationship between the layer thickness and the cross-sectional piston sizes. The latter can be a model for the relationship between the lithosphere thickness and the cross-sectional sizes of the mantle diapir that form a corona.     

Tectonic Evolution of Eastern Ishtar Terra,Venus

The complex morphology and topography of Eastern Ishtar Terra have been interpreted as due to tectonic deformation. Models proposed to account for this deformation include: crustal flow through asthenospheric flow and thermal-gravitational sliding; rifting, gravity spreading, and fold belt formation; and horizontal convergence and crustal thickening. In this study we map the detailed structural and topographic fabric of this region in order to explore and test these hypotheses. Eastern Ishtar can be divided into four major provinces: Maxwell Montes/Western Fortuna Tessera, a high plateau and mountain belt dominated by long NNW trending ridges; Central Fortuna Tessera, a low region of orthogonally oriented short WNW trending ridges and long, NNE trending troughs; Eastern Fortuna Tessera, a broad, E-W trending topographic rise characterized by ENE trending troughs and a complex pattern of intersecting ridges; and Northern Fortuna Tessera, a region of steep, NE-facing topographic scarps and ridges that trend WNW. On the basis of structural and topographic relationships, the features within these provinces are found to be inconsistent with a formation through either downslope crustal flow or rifting. We find that the mapped features are most consistent with a formation through convergence, collison, and underthrusting of thickened crustal terranes. These terranes are suggested to have been created through processes of seafloor-type spreading and crustal collision. Based on relationships between the different terranes, several accretional events are proposed in which Eastern Ishtar is produced by the collision of crustal terranes beginning at Lakshmi Planum and extending to the east. This sequence is initiated with the formation of Maxwell Montes and Western Fortuna Tessera during east-west crustal convergence, underthrusting, and stacking. The next step involves the northeast to southwest convergence of a preexisting thick block of tessera in Central Fortuna, which produces shear deformation within Western Fortuna. This northeast to southwest convergence also produces Northern Fortuna Tessera through crustal imbrication, a process recognized along the entire northern boundary of Ishtar Terra. Finally, Laima Tessera converges with Fortuna from the southeast and collides with Eastern Fortuna Tessera producing shear within Eastern Fortuna and the linear convergence zones along the edges of Laima. High resolution images returned by the Magellan spacecraft will enable us to examine the features involved in the proposed production and suturing of crustal terranes.'Geology and Tectonics of Venus', special issue edited by Alexander T. Basilevsky (USSR Acad. of Sci., Moscow), James W. Head (Brown University, Providence), Gordon H. Pettengill (MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts) and R. S. Saunders (J.P.L., Pasadena).     

Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Nefertiti Corona on Venus

This paper deals with some aspects of the formation and development of coronae, specific large circular structures on Venus. The origin of coronae is commonly associated with the effect of rising and subsequently relaxing hot mantle plumes (diapirs) on the surface layers of the lithosphere. A detailed photogeologic study of one of such structures, Nefertiti corona, which is undertaken in this paper, is based on an analysis of Magellanradar images. A sequence of geologic formations revealed in the territory under investigation made it possible, in combination with an analysis of tectonic structures, to develop a step-by-step scenario of the evolution of this structure. It was established that Nefertiti has gone the entire cycle of corona evolution—from the formation of a radially fractured rising dome (nova) to the mature corona. At the final stage of evolution of this corona, traces of its rejuvenation and the origin of a new system of radial fracturing in the central part of the corona are observed. Our observations of Nefertiti corona are compared to theoretical (numerically solved) and tectonophysical models of corona formation, which were described by some other researchers. The inferred evolution of Nefertiti agrees with commonly accepted geologic models of corona evolution.     

Structures of Coronae on Venus: Results of Topographic and Geologic Analysis

Solar System Research - From the analysis of the topography and geology of coronae on Venus, the most common topographic profiles of coronae were obtained, their relative age was estimated by the...     

Windblown sand on Venus: Preliminary results of laboratory simulations

Small particles and winds of sufficient strength to move them have been detected from Venera and Pioneer-Venus data and suggest the existence of aeolian processes on Venus. The Venus wind tunnel (VWT) was fabricated in order to investigate the behavior of windblown particles in a simulated Venusian environment. Preliminary results show that sand-size material is readily entrained at the wind speeds detected on Venus and that saltating grains achieve velocities closely matching those of the wind. Measurements of saltation threshold and particle flux for various particle sizes have been compared with theoretical models which were developed by extrapolation of findings from Martian and terrestial simulations. Results are in general agreement with theory, although certain discrepancies are apparent which may be attributed to experimental and/or theoretical-modeling procedures. Present findings enable a better understanding of Venusian surface processes and suggest that aeolian processes are important in the geological evolution of Venus.     

Evolution of the spin of Venus

Evolutionary sequences of the Venusian sidereal rotation period, and of its obliquity, under the action of solar gravitational torques on the body of the planet and on its atmosphere are here presented. They show that Venus initial configuration in the early history of the solar system may well have been of rotation period between 33 and 48 days with an angle of obliquity of about 170°.     

Equilibrium resurfacing of Venus: Results from new Monte Carlo modeling and implications for Venus surface histories

Venus’ impact crater population imposes two observational constraints that must be met by possible model surface histories: (1) near random spatial distribution of ～975 craters, and (2) few obviously modified impact craters. Catastrophic resurfacing obviously meets these constraints, but equilibrium resurfacing histories require a balance between crater distribution and modification to be viable. Equilibrium resurfacing scenarios with small incremental resurfacing areas meet constraint 1 but not 2, whereas those with large incremental resurfacing areas meet constraint 2 but not 1. Results of Monte Carlo modeling of equilibrium resurfacing (Strom et al., 1994) is widely cited as support for catastrophic resurfacing hypotheses and as evidence against hypotheses of equilibrium resurfacing. However, the Monte Carlo models did not consider intermediate-size incremental resurfacing areas, nor did they consider histories in which the era of impact crater formation outlasts an era of equilibrium resurfacing. We construct three suites of Monte Carlo experiments that examine incremental resurfacing areas not previously considered (5%, 1%, 0.7%, and 0.1%), and that vary the duration of resurfacing relative to impact crater formation time (1:1 [suite A], 5:6 [suite B], and 2:3 [suite C]). We test the model results against the two impact crater constraints.Several experiments met both constraints. The shorter the time period of equilibrium resurfacing, or the longer the time of crater formation following the cessation of equilibrium resurfacing, the larger the possible areas of incremental resurfacing that satisfy both constraints. Equilibrium resurfacing is statistically viable for suite A at 0.1%, suite B at 0.1%, and suite C for 1%, 0.7%, and 0.1% areas of incremental resurfacing.     

Structure of the Venus atmosphere

The structure of the Venus atmosphere is discussed. The data obtained in the 1980s by the last Soviet missions to Venus: orbiters Venera 15, 16 and the entry probes and balloons of Vega 1 and 2 are compared with the Venus International Reference Atmosphere (VIRA) model. VIRA is based on the data of the extensive space investigations of Venus in the 1960s and 1970s. The results of the IR Fourier Spectrometry experiment on Venera 15 are reviewed in detail. This instrument is considered as a precursor of the long wavelength channel of the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer on Venus Express.     

The Origin and Evolution of the Atmospheres of Venus, Earth and Mars

The chemical compositions of the primordial atmospheres of Venus, Earth and Mars have long been a topic of debate between the experts. Some believe that the original atmospheres were a product of outgassed volatiles from the newly accreted terrestrial planets and that these atmospheres consisted primarily of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapor and residual hydrogen and helium (e.g., Lewis and Prinn, <it>Planets and their Atmospheres,</it> Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1984, pp. 62–63, 81–84, 228–231, 383). Still others think the earliest atmospheres were composed of the gas components of the solar nebula from which the solar system formed (i.e., hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia and water). I consider the latter to be the correct scenario. Presented herein is a proposed mechanism by which the original atmospheres of Venus, Earth and Mars were transformed to atmospheres rich in carbon dioxide and nitrogen. An explanation is proposed for why water is so common on the surface of Earth and so scarce on the surfaces of Venus and Mars. Also presented are the effects the “great impact” (single cataclysmic event that was responsible for producing the Earth–Moon system) had upon the early atmosphere of Earth. The origin, structure and composition of the impacting object are determined through deductive analyses.     

Tectonics and Evolution of Novae and Coronae on Venus: Tectonophysical Modeling Based on Gravitational Models

This paper describes the results of tectonophysical modeling of the formation and evolution of novae and coronae—radial/concentric volcanotectonic structures typical of the surface of Venus. The formation of these structures is usually associated with the effect of the rising and subsequently relaxing mantle diapirs on the surface layers of the lithosphere. Two series of experiments with gravitational models reproduce the topographic changes and the evolution of structural patterns in the course of the formation of novae and coronae on Venus. For model materials, we chose (1) rubber (a Bingham liquid) to reproduce the behavior of the elastoviscous diapir material in one series of experiments and the lower part of the lithosphere in the other series and (2) flour to model tectonic structures in the upper, brittle part of the lithosphere. Regularities in the formation of the topographic and structural characteristics of novae and coronae have been demonstrated on models of different geometry. The process of formation of the dense radial fracturing in novae due to the mechanical elevation caused by the formation of a rising dome, which was suggested by many authors, is not corroborated by our models. In the course of modeling, we studied the influence of the relative dimensions of the diapir and the thickness of the overlying structures, or the relative depth of the neutral buoyancy surface of the diapir, on the topographic, morphological, and structural features of novae and coronae and on the possible paths of their evolution. Regularities are also revealed in the formation of tectonic structures in relation to the environment in which the diapir evolution occurs—in the brittle upper part of the lithosphere or in its lower, viscoplastic part.     

Venus: Preliminary prediction of the mineral composition of surface rocks

A thermodynamical analysis of the multicomponent system SiTiAlFeMnMgCaNaKPCHO open with respect to CO₂, CO, H₂O was carried out. Hydration and carbonatization processes are proposed to be geochemical consequences of the hypothesis of quasi-equilibrium conditions between the troposphere and crustal surface rocks. The probable rock-forming hydrated mineral phases are represented by epidote, glaucophane, tremolite, phlogopite, and annite; the carbonatization results in existence of calcite and dolomite as rock-forming minerals of weathered alkaline lavas. The surface rocks are assumed to have high ferric/ferrous iron ratios. The wollastonite equilibrium is rejected as a buffering chemical reaction. Hydrated minerals could be stable at least up to 5-km depths and contribute about 0.1 × 10²⁴ g of H₂O whereas about (0.7–0.8) × 10²⁴ g of H₂O would be consumed in ferrous iron oxidation with concomitant hydrogen dissipation. The distribution of H₂O in the outer planetary shells is possibly a function of their temperatures.     

金星自转演化的一种可能解释

本文从理论上估计了金星由于受太阳东西向潮汐力矩作用,而引起金星自转速率的长期变化;并根据金星探测器对金星大气的探测结果,表明它具有稳定的向西环流,从而可得其对金星自转的影响。本文的讨论,证明了金星形成初期是一快速顺向自转的天体,仅太阳的潮汐力矩不可能解释它的自转演化。如果取金星形成之后初始自转周期T_0=15小时,则大气逆向环流与太阳潮的合力矩作用引起金星自转速率变化为: ω(T)=[1647″+δ_i×19705′.′5sin(4.°58(T_0/T))]/世纪~2{δ_i=+1,金星顺转 δ_i=-1,金星逆转}可以估计经t_1=3.22×10~9年,其自转与目前的轨道周期同步。又经t_2=1.19×10~7年,达今天的逆转243天周期。     

Unusual Light Structure in the NOAA 12109 Sunspot Umbra: Observations and Preliminary Results

Astronomy Letters - On July 12, 2014, an unusual light structure was observed in the NOAA 12109 sunspot umbra at the Horizontal Solar Telescope of the Sayan Observatory. It differed from...     

Arabia Terra,Mars: Tectonic and Palaeoclimatic Evolution of a Remarkable Sector of Martian Lithosphere

A regional geologic study of Arabia Terra, a densely cratered area of Mars northern hemisphere, has revealed the individuality of this province. This is best expressed by an equatorial belt with a crater age distinctly younger as compared to the northern part of Arabia Terra and to Noachis Terra to the south. We interpret this as an incipient back-arc system provoked by the subduction of Mars lowlands under Arabia Terra during Noachian times. The regional fracture patterns are also best explained in this manner, making it unnecessary to appeal to a rotational instability of the planet, which is not supported by the palaeoclimatic indicators in the area. This model could be the first regional-scale confirmation of Sleep's (1994) hypothesis of a limited plate consumption as an explanation of the martian dichotomy. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Geology and tectonics of the Themis Regio-Lavinia Planitia-Alpha Regio-Lada Terra area,Venus: Results from Arecibo image data

New radar images obtained from the Arecibo Observatory (resolution 1.5–4.0 km) for portions of the southern hemisphere of Venus show that: the upland of Phoebe Regio contains the southern extension of Devana Chasma, a rift zone extending 4200 km south from Theia Mons and interpreted as a zone of extension; Alpha Regio, the only large region of tessera within the imaged area, is similar to tessera mapped elsewhere on the planet and covers a smaller percentage of the surface than that observed in the northern high latitudes; the upland made of Ushas, Innini and Hathor Montes consists of three distinct volcanic constructs; Themis Regio is mapped as an ovoid chain of radar-bright arcuate single and double ring structures, edifices and bright lineaments. This area is interpreted as a region of mantle upwelling and on the basis of apparent split and separated features, a zone of localized faulting and extension. Linear zones of deformation in Lavinia Planitia are characterized by lineament belts that are often locally elevated, are similar to ridge belts mapped in the northern high latitudes and are interpreted to be characterized mainly by compression; radar-bright lava complexes within Lavinia Planitia are unique to this part of the planet and are interpreted to represent areas of eruption of high volumes of extremely fluid lava; the upland of Lada Terra is bound to the north by a linear deformation zone interpreted as extensional, is characterized by large ovoids and coronae, is interpreted to be associated with an area of mantle upwelling, and is in contrast to the northern high latitude highland of Ishtar Terra. Regions of plains in the southern hemisphere cover about 78%; of the mapped area and are interpreted to be volcanic in origin. Located within the area imaged (10–78 S) are 52 craters interpreted to be of impact origin ranging from 8 to 157 km in diameter. On the basis of an overall crater density of 0.94 craters/10⁶ km², it is determined that the age of this part of the Venus surface is similar to the 0.3 to 1.0 billion year age calculated for the equatorial region and northern high latitudes. The geologic characteristics of the portion of the Venus southern hemisphere imaged by Arecibo are generally similar to those mapped elsewhere on the planet. This part of the planet is characterized by widespread volcanic plains, large volcanic edifices, and zones of linear belt deformation. The southern hemisphere of Venus differs from northern high latitudes in that tessera makes up only a small percentage of the surface area and the ovoid chain in Themis Regio is unique to this part of the planet. On the basis of the analysis presented here, the southern hemisphere of Venus is interpreted to be characterized by regions of mantle upwelling on a variety of scales (ovoids, region made up of Ushas, Innini and Hathor Montes), upwelling and extension (Themis Regio) and localized compression (lineament belts in Lavinia Planitia).     

Structure of the Venus mesosphere and lower thermosphere from measurements during entry of the pioneer Venus probes

Data on the thermal structure of the nightside middle atmosphere of Venus, from 84 to 137 km altitude, have been obtained from analysis of deceleration measurements from the third Pioneer Venus small probe, the night probe, which entered the atmosphere near the midnight meridian at 27°S latitude. Comparison of the midnight sounding with the morning sounding at 31°S latitude indicates that the temperature structure is essentially diurnally invariant up to 100 km, above which the nightside structure diverges sharply from the dayside toward lower temperatures. Very large diurnal pressure differences develop above 100 km with dayside pressure ten times that on the nightside at 126 km altitude. This has major implications for upper atmospheric dynamics. The data are compared with the measurements of G. M. Keating, J. Y. Nicholson, and L. R. Lake (1980, J. Geophys. Res., 85, 7941–7956) above 140 km with theoretical thermal structure models of Dickinson, and with data obtained by Russian Venera spacecraft below 100 km. Midnight temperatures are ～ 130°K, somewhat warmer than those reported by Keating et al.     

Topographic comparisons of uplift features on Venus and Earth: Implications for Venus tectonics

Venus and Earth display different hypsography. We use topographic profiles to search for well-understood terrestrial analogs to venusian features. Specifically, by using cross-correlation, we correlate average profiles for terrestrial rifts (slow and fast, “ultra-slow,” incipient and inactive) and also hotspots (oceanic and continental) with those for venusian chasmata and regiones, to draw inferences as to the processes responsible for shaping Venus’ surface. Correlations tend to improve with faster spreading rates; Venus’ correlations rank considerably lower than terrestrial ones, suggesting that if chasmata are analogous to terrestrial spreading centers, then spreading on Venus barely attains ultra-slow rates. Individual features’ normalized average profiles are correlated with profiles of other such features to establish the degree of similarity, which in turn allows for the construction of a covariance matrix. Principal component analysis of this covariance matrix shows that Yellowstone more strongly resembles Atla, Beta and W. Eistla regiones than it does the terrestrial oceanic hotspots, and that venusian chasmata, especially Ganis, most closely resemble the ultra-slow spreading Arctic ridge.     

Geology and tectonics of Beta Regio,Guinevere Planitia,Sedna Planitia,and Western Eistla Regio,Venus: Results from Arecibo image data

New radar images (resolution 1.5–2.0 km) obtained from the Arecibo Observatory are used to assess the geology of a portion of the equatorial region of Venus (1 S to 45 N and from 270 eastward to 30). Nine geologic units are mapped on the basis of their radar characteristics and their distribution and correspondences with topography are examined. Plains are the most abundant unit, make up 80%; of the area imaged, and are divided into bright, dark, and mottled. Mottled plains contain abundant lava flows and domes suggesting that volcanism forming plains is a significant process in the equatorial region of Venus. Tesserae are found primarily on Beta Regio and its eastern flank and are interpreted to be locally stratigraphically older units, predating episodes of faulting and plains formation. Isolated regions of tesserae concentrated to the north of Western Eistla Regio are interpreted to predate the formation of plains in this area. The volcanoes Sif Mons, Gula Mons, Sappho, Theia Mons, and Rhea Mons, are found exclusively in highland regions and their deposits are interpreted as contributing only a small percentage to the overall volume of the regional topography. The northern 15 of the image data overlap with Venera 15/16 images making it possible to examine the characteristics of geologic units mapped under various illumination directions and incidence angles. Surface panoramas and geochemical data obtained from Venera landers provide ground truth for map units, evidence that plains are made up of basaltic lava flows, and that linear deformation zones contain abundant blocks and cobbles. On the basis of spatial and temporal relationships between geologic units, the highlands of Beta Regio and Western Eistla Regio are interpreted to have formed in association with areas of mantle upwelling which uplift plains, cause rifting, and in the case of Beta Regio, disrupt a large region of tessera. Zones of linear belt deformation in Beta Regio and Western Eistla Regio are interpreted to be extensional and indicate that at least limited extension has occurred in both regions. The images reveal for the first time that southern Devana Chasma is a region of overlapping rift valleys separated by a distance of 600 km. Linear deformation zones in Guinevere Planitia, separating Beta Regio and Eistla Regio, converge at a region of ovoids forming a discontinuous zone of disruption and completes an equatorial encompassing network of highlands and tectonic features. The similarity between ovoids and coronae suggests a mechanism of formation associated with hotspots or mantle plumes. Analysis of the distribution and density of impact craters suggests a surface age for this part of the planet similar to or slightly less than that determined for the northern high latitudes from Venera 15/16 data (0.3 to 1.5 by) and comparable to that calculated for the southern hemisphere.     

Preliminary results on the Venus atmosphere from the Venera 8 descent module

The Venera 8 descent module measured pressure, temperature, winds and illumination as a function of altitude in its landing on July 22, 1972, just beyond the terminator in the illuminated hemisphere of Venus. The surface temperature and pressure is 741 ± 7°K and 93 ± 1.5kgcm^?2, consistent with early Venera observations and showing either no diurnal variation or insignificant diurnal variation in temperature and pressure in the vicinity of the morning terminator. The atmosphere is adiabatic down to the surface. The horizontal wind speed is low near the surface, about 35m/sec between 20 and 40km altitude, and increasing rapidly above 48km altitude to 100–140m/sec, consistent with the 4-day retrograde rotation of the ultraviolet clouds. The illumination at the center of the day hemisphere of Venus is calculated to be about 1% of the solar flux at the top of the atmosphere, consistent with greenhouse models and high enough to permit photography of the Venus surface by future missions. The attenuation below 35km altitude is explained by Rayleigh scattering with no atmospheric aerosols; above 35km there must be substantial extinction of incident light.     

Landing on Venus: Past and future

We briefly describe the history of landings on Venus, the acquired geochemical data and their potential petrologic interpretations. We suggest a new approach to Venus landing site selection that would avoid the potential contamination by ejecta from upwind impact craters. We also describe candidate units to be sampled in both in situ measurement and sample return missions. For the in situ measurements, the “true” tessera terrain (tt) material is considered as the highest priority goal with the second priority given to transitional tessera terrain (ttt), shield plains (psh) and lobate plains (pl) materials. For the sample return mission, the material of regional plains with wrinkle ridges (pwr) is considered as the highest priority goal with the second priority given to tessera terrain (tt) material. Combining the desire to study materials of specific geologic units with the problem of avoiding potential contamination by ejecta from upwind impact craters, we have suggested several candidate landing sites for each of the geologic units. Although spacecraft ballistics and other constraints of specific mission profiles (VEP or others) may lead to the selection of different candidate sites, we believe that the approaches outlined in this paper can be helpful approach in optimizing mission science return.