Heavy metals deposited from the atmosphere on upland Scottish soils: Chemical and lead isotope studies of the association of metals with soil components

Three soil profiles taken from the Hartwood Research Station in Central Scotland have been analyzed using chemical digestion and extraction techniques to investigate the chemical association of heavy metals deposited from the atmosphere. Total digestion, EDTA extraction and the BCR (Bureau Communitaire de Reference) sequential extraction procedure were used. In addition, lead isotope ratios in the whole soils and in the fractions from the sequential extraction procedure were measured using thermal ionisation mass spectrometry. All the digestion and extraction procedures gave clear indication of enhanced concentrations of heavy metals in surface soils, in particular for lead and zinc. Whereas total digestion gave a good indication of the heavy metal status of the soils, the extraction procedures were necessary to provide information on chemical association of the metals with soil components, information needed to understand the soil processes involved in mobilization of metals. Lead isotope analysis of the whole soils revealed a consistent picture of lower ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios in surface soils (1.140-1.147) than in soils at 20-30 cm depth (1.182-1.190). The steady progression from the lower to higher ratios down the profile was clear indication that anthropogenic lead had penetrated to some degree into the deeper soils. The combination of sequential extraction and lead isotope analysis proved to be a powerful approach to studying this effect in more detail and showed that the fractions extractable from 20 to 30 cm soils contained lead with much lower ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios (1.174-1.178) than the residual fraction (1.196-1.200). As the extractable fractions contained ≥85% of the lead in the soil, a substantial portion of lead at 20-30 cm depth was of anthropogenic origin. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios of 1.174-1.178 found in the extractable fractions suggested that the mobile component of the anthropogenic lead was that deposited before the introduction of leaded petrol.     

Heavy metals contamination and magnetic susceptibility in soils around metallurgical plant

A non-conventional way of utilizing magnetic susceptibility — soil kappametry — was tested in the area of a major metallurgical plant VSŽ Košice (East Slovakia). Magnetic susceptibility values above background in soil samples indicate higher concentrations of heavy metals in soil, i.e. the soil kappametry can be used as a preliminary quick and inexpensive method for detection of higher heavy metal contents in soils.     

Heavy metals in stream sediments: Error versus concentration

A regional geochemical mapping program in southern Norway carried out by the Geological Survey of Norway is based on sampling of stream sediments at road/stream intersections. At each site two individual subsamples have been taken. The subsamples were treated independently during the chemical analysis. This procedure enables an estimation of the reproducibility of the element concentration at each sample site. The paper gives results for the average relative total, sampling and laboratory errors at various levels of metal concentration using data for HNO₃ -soluble Mn, Pb and Cu as examples. For Mn and Pb the relative total error reaches a minimum near the median concentration and increases toward both the high and low concentrations. For Cu the relative total and laboratory errors decrease with increasing concentration throughout the whole concentration range, while the sampling error is fairly constant. The results suggest that the models which are commonly used for error determination in geochemical data, are too simple as far as relationships between error and concentration are concerned.     

Heavy metals status,transport mechanisms,sources, and factors affecting their mobility in Chinese agricultural soils

Heavy metals are the focus of much interest because of their environmental persistence, toxicity, and mobility in soils. Some of the Chinese soils have been contaminated with heavy metals due to expansion of mining industries, pesticides usage, and other anthropological activities, which made the agro-ecosystem to become contaminated. The objective of this review is to illuminate the current pollution status, sources of heavy metals, transport mechanisms, and the factors affecting their mobility in Chinese soils. The additional studies in the future will present on source identification and the heavy metal transport characteristics in soil.     

Distribution of heavy metals in Gaborone urban soils (Botswana) and its relationship to soil pollution and bedrock composition

The capital city of Botswana, Gaborone, has seen unprecedented population, economic, and industrial growth in recent years. In order to assess how this rapid urbanisation process impacts the environment, 106 silt and clay (particle size <0.053 mm) samples, separated from Gaborone surface soil samples representing urban, agricultural and rural sites, were investigated. The concentrations of nine heavy metals (Sc, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Nb, Cd, and Pb) were measured using ICP–MS and GFAAS, and the resulting patterns were correlated to the bedrock composition and anthropogenic activities. As expected, we found that samples from soils on top of dolerites show higher levels of Cr, Ni, and Cu than those on top of granites and rhyolites. However, our studies also show that Gaborone city centre soils are moderately polluted by Pb (up to 222 mg/kg, i.e. 5.7-fold the concentration in comparable rural soils), as a result of heavy traffic. Furthermore, Cr and Ni pollution originating from agrochemicals were shown to be accumulating in Gaborone crop soils. Our studies also showed moderate levels of Zn pollution and low level, dot-shaped pollution of Cr, Co, Ni, Cu detected in Gaborone residential and industrial soils that are correlated to waste disposal. Interestingly, the highest levels of Sc, Cr, Co, Ni and Zn pollution are found near two abandoned sewage works. The results of sequential extraction indicate that the polluting Co and Ni exist in all speciations; the polluting Cu mainly exists in the residue of the sequential extraction, whereas the polluting Pb is mostly bound to organic matters and Fe- and Mn-oxides. These results highlight the need for instituting a systematic and continuous monitoring of heavy metals and other forms of pollutants in Gaborone to ensure that pollution does not become a serious problem in the future.     

Heavy metals pollution and the identification of their sources in soil over Xiaoqinling gold-mining region,Shaanxi, China

In order to determine the characteristics of heavy metals’ pollution and identify their sources in the soil over the Xiaoqinling gold-mining region, Shaanxi, China, 133 soil samples were collected over the region, one sample was from a close point as background, and concentrations of Hg, Pb, Cu, and As in all samples were analyzed. Results indicated that the soil was polluted by these heavy metals, as their concentrations in the soil over the studied region were higher than that in the background zone. In addition, the result indicated that these metals had their specific spatial characteristics. Among the samples, those with higher concentrations of Hg, Pb, and Cu were mainly collected from the Shuangqiao river alluvial terrace area, the loess ravine tableland, and the piedmont alluvial–pluvial inclined tableland, which are the areas of gold-mining activities. Meanwhile, the samples with higher concentrations of As were distributed over the loess ravine tableland around Tongguan County, where agricultural activities were conducted intensively. Furthermore, the sources for all the heavy metals Hg, Pb, Cu, and As in the soil over each landscape were determined through analyzing the concentration correlation of these metals and comparing the maps of metal concentration distribution and land-use types. In Yellow river–Weihe river alluvial plain area, these heavy metals were mainly from agricultural activities. In the other landscapes, As was also mainly from agricultural activities; the other metals were contrarily from the gold-related activities. Interestingly, the correlation coefficients of As concentrations with Hg, Pb or Cu concentrations were positive in the samples from Yellow river–Weihe river alluvial plain area, and on the contrary, they were negative in the samples from the other landscapes. This result showed that the correlation can be used as an index to indicate properly the effect of the gold-related or agricultural activities on the heavy metals in the soil and identify their main sources over each landscape. As human activities resulted in the site-specific characteristics in the concentrations and sources of the heavy metals in each landscape, site-specific control strategies should be selected intensively to remedy landscape soil pollution. In Yellow river–Weihe river plain area, effective control strategies should be aimed at remedying As pollution caused by agricultural activities; in the other landscapes, Hg, Pb and Cu pollution caused by gold-mining activities should be considered.     

Relationship between magnetic properties and heavy metals of urban soils with different soil types and environmental settings: implications for magnetic mapping

Two types of soil (fluvisols and anthrosols) were collected from different environmental settings (suburb and industrial area) in Wuhan, central China, aiming to examine the applicability of magnetic mapping for heavy metal pollution of urban soil in a large region. Magnetic measurements and chemical analysis indicated elevated magnetization and heavy metal concentrations of topsoils in the industrial area. Magnetic susceptibility (χ), anhysteretic remanent magnetization (ARM) and saturation isothermal remanent magnetization (SIRM) of fluvisols are much higher than those of anthrosols, but contrary for frequency-dependent susceptibility, indicating that soil magnetism strongly depends on the soil type/condition. Predominant magnetic carrier in topsoils in industrial area is pseudo-single-domain/multi-domain magnetite. Environmental scanning electron microscope/energy dispersive X-ray examination of the magnetic extracts from these topsoils revealed abundant spherical particles with diameters of 10–50 μm that are rich in iron-oxides, and could be attributed to the nearby industrial activities (e.g., steel work and power generation). Significant correlations were observed between magnetic concentration-related parameters (e.g., χ, ARM and SIRM) and concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, Hg and Tomlinson pollution load index. These results proposed that magnetic proxy mapping of soil pollution is an effective, fast and inexpensive tool for delineation of heavy metal pollution. However, interpretation of magnetic properties for such a purpose must be done on a site-specific basis, taking into account the possibilities of pedogenic enhancement/depletion under the specific soil conditions.     

Magnetic properties of river sediments and their relationship with heavy metals and organic matter in the urban area in Lanzhou, China

As the largest industrial city locating in the Northwestern China, Lanzhou has become one of the most seriously polluted cities in the world. In this study, investigations were performed on the magnetic properties, heavy metals and organic matter contents of a total of 23 sediment samples collected from eight selected rivers in the Lanzhou urban area. The results of the study indicate that the magnetic properties of the sediment samples are predominated by low-coercivity magnetite. The river sediments are classified into three types, i.e., downstream polluted, upstream polluted, and less affected, based on the contribution from anthropogenic activities in different segments of the river as indicated by the variation of magnetic mineral concentration parameters. Moreover, a strong linear positive correlation exists among some of the magnetic parameters and organic matter content, heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Fe) and total enrichment factor (R) of the bulk deposit samples, which indicates that environmental magnetic technology may be an effective method for distinguishing source apportionment and monitoring river sediment pollution in urban areas.     

Heavy metals in deep groundwater within coal mining area,northern Anhui province,China: concentration,relationship, and source apportionment

The present study was conducted to investigate the concentrations of heavy metals (HMs) in deep groundwater from coal mining area, including cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni). The samples were collected from different aquifers in four coal mines of northern Anhui province, China, which were unconsolidated formation (UF), coal measure aquifer (CA), Taiyuan limestone aquifer (TA), and Ordovician limestone aquifer (OA), respectively. HM concentrations from the four different sources were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometer, and were found in the order of Zn>Ni>Pb>Cu>Cd>Cr (in UF), Ni>Zn>Pb>Cu>Cr>Cd (in CA), Ni>Zn>Pb>Cu>Cd>Cr (in TA), and Zn>Ni>Pb>Cu>Cr>Cd (in OA), respectively. Concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Cr were found within the quality guidelines set by Bureau of Quality and Technical Supervision of China (GB/T 14848-93) and World Health Organization, while the concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Ni were higher than their respective permissible limits. The enhanced concentrations of Ni, together with Cr, were considered to be affected by anthropogenic sources, since they both had high variable coefficient. Moreover, the inter-dependence of HMs and their pollution sources were further discussed using statistical techniques, including one-factor analysis of variance, Pearson correlation analysis, and principle component analysis.     

Global challenges and adaptations in management practices to preserve soil carbon pool with changing climate

Increasing CO₂ levels and its consequent effects have been prominent with climate change. Three out of ten transgressed planetary boundaries reflect our planet’s status at tipping point. Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) which helps soil supply water and nutrients to plants through roots is inherently related to various ecological systems and needs urgent attention. Although the total SOC globally is more than the total carbon in biosphere and atmosphere, the vulnerability of SOC due to anthropogenic activities is unavoidable. The environmental factors affecting sequestration of SOC, soil fertility, crop production, accelerated SOC removal with rising temperatures, green-house gases emissions and climate change are interrelated. Thus, it is impossible to understand and estimate the various scenarios of impacts on SOC pool with ever-changing ecosystems and related processes in soil environment completely. Based on currently predicted climate change scenarios, if deforestation is controlled and reestablishment is achieved, tropical forests can trap atmospheric CO₂ in the cheapest way and function as the largest sink on earth. The agricultural management practices (AMPs), which have been practiced in the last two decades and found helpful are suitable. However, some innovative adaptations such as crop modelling, selecting types of residue to change microbial communities, practices of grassland-grazing and low-C-emission AMPs are also necessary. To achieve the millennium development goals, we must accomplish food security, which relates all 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) also relays agricultural systems, soil systems, ecosystem services, soil fertility and how best we nurture SOC pool with supportive AMPs.     

Bioavailable copper and manganese in soils from Iceland and their relationship with scrapie occurrence in sheep

The bioavailability of trace metals can be directly linked with many common animal and human diseases. It is easier to correlate regional geochemical trends with disease distribution in the developing world because local populations and animals live from the land. In the western world, humans tend to live from the global food market whereas animals graze on the land. Recent biochemical studies have shown that the prion protein needs copper to keep its structure. If copper is not available, the prion protein can take up manganese and unfold. Preliminary results for trace metals in soil samples from scrapie-affected areas in Iceland show that bioavailable manganese manganese (easily reducible and exchangeable Mn) is very high whereas soluble copper and free copper are very low.     

Fractal features of soil particle-size distributions and their relationships with soil properties in gravel-mulched fields

Soil particle-size distribution (PSD) is an important index for soil classification because it has large influences on soil hydrological characteristics, salinity, fertility, erodibility, nutrient content, swelling/shrinking, and degradation. We present a case study of the fractal characteristics of soil PSD and its relationship with soil properties of gravel-mulched fields in an arid area of northwestern China using single-fractal calculation. Particle size was unimodally distributed within the narrow range of 20–100 μm, with silt as the most common component. Horizontally, silt content was the highest, followed by sand and clay contents. Vertically, clay content increased with depth, while there were no obvious change rules for both silt and sand contents. The volume fractal dimension (D) of PSD ranged from 2.4307 to 2.5260, increased with the content of fine particles but decreased with the content of coarse particles. D was correlated positively with soil-water content and salt content and negatively with bulk density. The saturated soil-water content was strongly correlated negatively with silt content (p < 0.01) and positively with sand content (p < 0.01). The results indicate that D can be a potential indicator of the physical and chemical properties of soil and can also provide a theoretical basis and technical guidance for the effective use and management of the region.     

NDVI dynamic changes and their relationship with meteorological factors and soil moisture

Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is an important indicator for measuring vegetation coverage, which is of great significance for evaluating vegetation dynamics and vegetation restoration. It can clearly analyze the suitable growth condition of vegetation by studying the relationship between meteorological factors, soil moisture and NDVI. Based on MODIS/NDVI data, the spatio-temporal characteristics of vegetation coverage in the Weihe River Basin (WRB) were analyzed by the trend analysis method. The relationship of NDVI with meteorological factors and NDVI with soil moisture simulated by the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model was analyzed in this paper. The results show that NDVI values gradually change with an increase from north to south in the WRB. The maximum of the average monthly NDVI is 0.702 (August) and the minimum is 0.288 in February from 2000 to 2015. The results of the seven grades of NDVI trend line slope indicate that the improvement area of vegetation coverage accounts for 30.93% of the total basin, and the degradation area and basically unchanged area account for 23% and 42.9%, respectively. The annual mean soil moisture is 19.37% in the WRB. There was a strong correlation between NDVI and precipitation, temperature, evaporation and soil moisture, and the correlation coefficients were 0.78, 0.89, 0.71 and 0.65, respectively. The ranges of the most suitable growth conditions for vegetation are 80–145 mm (precipitation), 13–23 °C (temperature), 94–144 mm (evaporation) and 25–33% (soil moisture), respectively.     

安溪土壤—茶叶铅含量关系与土壤铅临界值研究

在福建安溪等地79个茶园采集了表层、亚表层土壤样和对应的茶叶样品,测定了茶叶铅含量和土壤常量组分、铅等微量元素组成。相关分析表明,茶叶与土壤铅含量呈显著正相关(P0.01),由此可建立一元线性回归方程,计算茶叶对土壤铅的迁移系数(Ft)。研究得出,茶叶铅迁移系数受土壤中Pb、Mn、P、Zn浓度的影响。依据茶叶铅质量标准,推算出茶园土壤铅安全临界值,结果表明,通常情况下由茶树根系从土壤中吸收的铅不会导致茶叶铅含量超标。以土壤铅存在形态及其生物有效性的理论研究成果为指导,结合影响茶叶铅迁移系数的土壤理化指标,建立的多元回归方程能更好地表征茶叶铅含量与土壤理化指标间的相互关系。     

Heavy metals pollution in the soils of suburban areas in big cities: a case study

Soil pollution in agricultural areas surrounding big cities is a major environmental problem. Tabriz is the largest city in the northwest of Iran and the fourth largest city in the country. Soil samples were taken from 46 sites in the suburbs of the Tabriz city, and separate samples were taken from control site and analyzed. The results indicated that the mean pH value of the soil samples was 9.29, while the mean EC value was 354.33 μs/cm and the amount of TOC and TOM was 0.99 and 1.7 %, respectively. The mean concentrations of Cd, Pb, Cu, Cr, Ni, and Zn in the soil were determined to be 1.61, 10.56, 101.25, 87.40, 38.73, and 98.27 mg/kg, respectively (dry weight). The concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Cu, Cr, and Zn), with the exception of Ni, were higher than the concentrations of the same heavy metals at the control site. Despite these elevated concentrations, the concentrations of heavy metals were lower than the toxicity threshold limit of agricultural soils. The values of the pollution index revealed that the metal pollution level was Pb > Cr > Cu > Zn > Cd > Ni, and the mean value of the integrated pollution index was determined to be 1.81, indicating moderate pollution. Nevertheless, there were some sites that were severely polluted by Cr (maximum values of 1,364 mg/kg). It was concluded that city probably has affected the surrounding agricultural area. Application of wastewater (municipal and industrial) as irrigation water, using of sludge as soil fertilizer, and atmospheric perceptions have been considered as main reasons of increased heavy metals concentrations found in the studied area.     

Soil compaction under different management practices in a Croatian vineyard

The use of machinery in vineyards is increasing soil compaction and erosion. However, there is a lack of information about the impacts of different management practices on soil conditions of vineyards. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess soil compaction in Croatian vineyards under four different management systems: no-tillage (NT) system, conventional tillage (CT), yearly inversed grass covered (INV-GC) and tillage managed (INV-T) treatments. Four key top-soil (0–20 cm) parameters were assessed in the different land uses: bulk density (BD), penetration resistance (PR), soil water content (SWC) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) fluxes. Tractor traffic increased the BD and PR in all treatments, with exception of CT treatment, as consequence of tillage. SWC showed higher values in INV-GC treatment during the dry period; meanwhile, it was similar during the wet season in every management type. Lower CO₂ fluxes were found in INV-GC and NT than in the CT and INV-T treatments.     

Assessment of the selected trace metals in relation to long-term agricultural practices and landscape properties

Understanding of the landscape response to agricultural practices mainly in relation to soil trace metals requires particular attention. Consistent with this, the trend and possible pollution of total and DTPA fraction of Mn, Zn, Cu, and Cd in the agricultural soils developed on different landscape positions involving piedmont alluvial plain (PAP), river alluvial plain (RAP), plateau (PL), and lowland (LL) were investigated. The content of the metal in different soil profiles, grouped by landscape positions, varied in the following orders: total and DTPA-Mn as LL > PAP > RAP > PL, total Zn and Cu as PAP > RAP > LL > PL, total Cd as RAP > PAP > PL > LL, DTPA-Zn as RAP > PAP > PL > LL, and DTPA-Cu as RAP > LL > PL > PAP. A wide variation in the total fraction of Mn (89–985 mg kg^?1), Zn (24–152 mg kg^?1), Cu (8–27 mg kg^?1), and Cd (0.6–1.7 mg kg^?1) and in the DTPA fraction of Mn (1.2–11 mg kg^?1), Zn (0.3–4.4 mg kg^?1), Cu (0.3–3 mg kg^?1), Cd (0.03–0.09 mg kg^?1) observed as a result of the effects of agricultural practices and landscape properties. The values of both total and DTPA-extractable Mn, Zn, and Cu were enriched in the AP horizon probably due to anthropogenic activities particularly successive use of agrochemical compounds and manure during numerous years. Using soil pollution indices [single pollution (PI) and comprehensive pollution (PIN)], the study soils were categorized mainly as low to moderate pollution and Zn was identified as the major element affecting on the yield of these indices.     

Suspended sediment concentration and particle size distribution,and their relationship with heavy metal content

This paper aims at assessing the feasibility of suspended sediment concentration (SSC) estimation by using predictor variables of heavy metal concentration (HMC, viz., iron, chromium, zinc and nickel) transported in solution and solid. The study was conducted in the Research and Educational Forest Watershed of the Tarbiat Modares University (Kojour) which comprises an area of ca. 50000 ha. For this study, suspended sediment samples were collected from the left bank of the Kojour River twice a week, as well as during runoff events from November 2007 to June 2008. The samples were then prepared through direct digestion and finally analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). The relationship between SSC and particle size distribution (PSD) were correlated with HMC by using bivariate and multivariate regression models. Proposed models were then selected based on statistical criteria. The results showed high correlation between dissolved and particulate chromium content with efficiency coefficients beyond 77% (P < 0.001). However, a lower relationship was found between SSC and nickel content. From these results, it is clearly shown that the HMC can practically be estimated by SSC in watersheds with different accuracy and vice versa. It is also understood that heavy metal pollution can be easily managed by controlling SSC.     

黄石市城市边缘区土壤重金属分布特征、风险评价及溯源分析

为掌握黄石市城市边缘区农用土壤环境质量现状,在高密度表、深层土壤采样的基础上,重点分析了土壤重金属元素的分布规律和特征,对其进行了生态环境风险评价,并对重金属元素成因进行了溯源分析。结果表明:研究区土壤中的重金属元素As、Pb、Hg、Cd、Zn、Ni、Cu和Cr含量范围分别为(5.2~155.9)×10-6 、(19.2~426.1)×10-6 、(0.012~1.823)×10-6 、(0.03~4.59)×10-6 、(34.8~529.6)×10-6 、(8.5~86.2)×10-6 、(16.52~104.39)×10-6 和(51.2~145.5)×10-6,平均含量均超过区域土壤环境背景值,且Cd超过农用地土壤风险筛选值。重金属污染物主要集中在表层40 cm以上土壤中,土地类型中以水田和旱地污染为主,污染物中以Cd、As和Pb为主要特征。水田中As、Pb、Cu和Zn为轻度污染,Cd和Hg为中度污染,而Cr和Ni无污染;旱地和林地中As、Pb和Hg为轻度污染,Cd为中度污染,而Cr、Cu、Ni和Zn无污染。多元统计分析表明,研究区土壤中Cr和Ni为自然源成因,与成土母质相关;Cd和Pb、As和Hg主要为人为源污染,与黄石市高强度工矿业生产和硫化物矿物酸化释放有关;而Cu和Zn为混合源成因,部分来源于土壤环境背景,部分来源于人类活动和工业生产排放。     

Geostatistical evaluation of lead and zinc concentration in soils of an old mining area with complex land management

This study is aimed at detailed statistical and geostatistical investigation of lead and zinc concentration in an old mining area located in the eastern part of the Upper Silesian Industrial Region. This area is rich in lead and zinc ores whose intense extraction dates back to the tenth century ad. The complexity of the area results from historical and current mining activities, as well as from a variety of different types of land management and complex geological conditions. Almost 1,000 collected soil cores were divided into two subsets: those collected at the depth of up to 20 cm and the those collected at the depth from 40 to 60 cm. Extensive analyses considered geological substrata in terms of spatial variability and spatial distributions, the type of land management, geoaccumulation indexes and enrichment factors. Lead and zinc concentration was several times higher on depths ranging from 40 to 60 cm beneath the soil surface than in the 20-cm topsoil. The results showed that clearer spatial dependence was observed for deeper soil layers then for the topmost ones, especially near mines where anthropogenic factors predominated over lithogenic ones. Weak spatial dependence was accompanied by high values of the geoaccumulation index. The lowest concentrations of pollution with geoaccumulation index below 0 and enrichment factor up to 5 observed in the forest were caused by low anthropogenic pressure and the presence of sandy soils, less capable of accumulating heavy metals.