云冈石窟砂岩特性与岩石风化试验

侏罗纪期间河相沉积而成的巨大砂岩透镜体是云冈石窟遗产载体,在目前环境条件下,石窟砂岩风化破坏非常严重。通过现场调查表明,在不同细分层位,砂岩破坏特征与其沉积环境及沉积构造密切相关。进一步对不同风化程度样品进行测试,以此建立起风化评估依据,结果表明,该砂岩化学风化主要体现在胶结物流失、长石蚀变,而次生可溶盐结晶及冻融形成的物理破坏也不应该忽视。通过风化模拟试验可知：酸的溶蚀对石窟岩体表面造成直接破坏;同时,形成的可溶盐将导致砂岩出现由内而外劣化现象;由于岩石的孔隙率低、渗透性较差且胶结密实,岩石抵抗冻融作用相对较强。建议云冈石窟目前保护措施以治水为主,通过减少崖壁表面渗水、洞窟裂隙渗水及底部泥岩泛潮来减少上述劣化作用效应。     

可溶盐对云冈石窟砂岩劣化试验及模型建立

可溶盐富集是造成山西大同云冈石窟砂岩表面风化、结构破坏及强度降低的重要地质病害之一。采取云冈石窟造像层砂岩,使用芒硝对该砂岩进行了劣化模拟试验。在可溶盐反复结晶过程中,对样品进行实时变形监测,并对循环过程中质量衰减、强度变化、孔隙分布等进行测试与分析。结果表明,可溶盐的发育是导致石窟表面粉化脱落的重要因素,严重降低了石窟文物本体的价值;可溶盐结晶导致岩石颗粒间胶结作用破坏,增大岩石孔隙率,岩石内部结构劣化严重影响岩石的刚度与强度等力学参数;对比无水芒硝与10水芒硝两种劣化试验,云冈石窟在相对干燥季节下,可溶盐晶体发育对岩石破坏更为显著。为了预测砂岩长期劣化过程,在试验数据基础上,初步建立起孔隙增长的对数模型和强度衰减的指数模型。     

中国不同气候带盐风化作用的地貌特征

盐风化作用是地球表面普遍存在的一种物理风化作用,由于盐类的周期性结晶作用而造成地表岩石和建筑材料的破坏,形成诸如风化穴或蜂窝石构造等地貌景观。盐风化作用也是差异风化的主要表现形式之一。然而,到目前为止盐风化作用在中国地学界仍然被严重忽视,以至于盐风化作用造成的地貌景观常常被地学研究者和科普人士误读为海浪冲蚀、流水侵蚀、风蚀作用等。经过近十年的野外观察与探讨,笔者等对盐风化的形成机理和表现形式有了深入的理解。本文以中国境内东部海岸带、华北半干旱区、西北干旱区和东南湿热气候带基岩露头为例,系统地分析了盐风化作用的机理及其在不同气候带的表现形式。盐风化的必要条件是:适当的可溶性盐类(如Na_2SO_4、NaCl等)供应、周期性的干湿交替和温度变化。盐风化作用主要在发育可渗性孔隙的砂砾岩类和富含微裂隙的花岗岩类之露头表面表现明显,可以形成特征显著的盐风化穴。盐风化作用形成的地貌景观在东部海岸带和西北干旱区表现尤为明显,常常形成蜂窝石构造和大型风化穴,与风蚀作用的痕迹明显有别;而在华北半干旱区和南方湿热气候带虽然受到降雨等其他因素的影响而常常遭受改造、叠加甚或清除,但在某些露头区仍然保留有重要的识别标志,形成大型风化穴以及小型蜂窝石构造。笔者等强调:地表各种地貌景观形成过程中都有盐风化作用的贡献,而建筑物和景观保护也必须考虑到盐风化作用的影响。建议地学同仁重视盐风化作用的普遍性和重要性,在相关教材中补充更新盐风化的概念,并以科普的方式通过多种媒体纠正过去的错误认识。     

宝顶山石窟造象岩壁风化产物化学特征及形成分析

为研究宝顶山石窟区造象岩壁风化破坏及渗水危害的作用机理,选择不同类型风化产物进行定期采样监测。本文重点论述了外围岩石和造象岩壁风化产物的化学成分及矿物成分、风化产物可溶盐的化学特征及可溶盐类型,以及这些特征的多年变化规律,分析论证了可溶盐不同水化学成因类型的形成特征,为防风化防渗水危害治理措施提供可靠依据。     

湿度对盐溶液在壁画地仗中的毛细迁移影响研究

盐溶液在地仗中毛细迁移引起的盐分迁移、富集已成为壁画病害发生的重要原因。研究不同湿度条件下盐溶液在模拟地仗中的毛细迁移过程对可溶盐再分布的影响。分析不同湿度条件下毛细上升高度随时间的变化关系,含水率和电导率随高度变化关系,毛细饱和后试样表面变化情况及可溶盐含量随试样高度的分布。试验结果表明,空气相对湿度越低,毛细上升过程中水分向空气中迁移越多,水分难以向上迁移。试样的含水率随高度呈递减趋势,而电导率随试样高度增加而增大。可溶盐在毛细水上升过程中发生结晶分异,毛细前锋以NaCl结晶富集为主,亚前锋以Na2SO4结晶富集为主。其研究结果可以为壁画盐害的防治提供基础科学依据。     

四川广元千佛崖石窟造像表面风化的环境地质问题分析

采用温湿度测试、石窟造像渗水实验、石窟造像吸水的红外成像、岩石特征分析等手段,对四川广元千佛崖石窟造像表面及其周围环境进行监测,以及对石窟造像岩石特征进行分析。结果表明：进深较大的窟室内外存在2℃~4℃的温差,岩石0~40 mm深度范围内温度与外界气温存在显著相关性;石窟造像岩石主要成分为长石、石英、黑云母及黏土矿物,岩石渗水率和吸水率高,表层风化程度高。环境和岩石特征揭示广元千佛崖石窟造像的风化机理为：石质文物棱角部位和小型石窟造像对温度的变化敏感,当气温出现变化时,其温度变化剧烈,而其他部位相对滞后,从而导致石窟造像表层岩石在热胀冷缩的应力下出现微裂隙,并随着微裂隙逐渐增大,石质文物表面出现疏松、起壳、鳞片剥落等病害。同时微裂隙的出现增加水入渗的途径并扩大水-岩相互作用的面积,含水矿物的水合压力和结晶压力使岩石内部结构疏松逐渐破坏;水化学作用导致可溶盐离子形成,并随水毛细迁移在石窟造像表面聚集,导致石窟造像表面酥碱、锈染、彩绘层空鼓等失去原真而破坏。最后提出在窟龛上面加盖窟檐和在崖顶及立面坡面刻槽疏排水流等石窟造像治理措施来减缓其表面风化。     

湘西地区陡山沱组黑色岩石风化与物理力学性质的变化特征

湘西地区陡山沱组黑色岩石因其特殊的矿物成份和地理位置,其风化作用具显著特征,即化学风化和物理风化作用相伴、相互促进.化学风化产生的矿物质一部分流失,一部分迅速结晶,形成物理风化作用,均造成岩石不断破碎,裂隙加深,因而又促使各种风化作用更加深入到岩石之中.这种风化所造成的岩石物理力学性质变化,将对岩土体的工程稳定性造成很大的影响.因而研究岩石风化后的这种变化有着十分重要的意义.本文对湘西地区陡山沱组黑色岩石不同风化特征进行了深入研究,结合其物理力学试验以及大量的点荷载强度试验结果,分析研究了岩石风化过程中物理力学性质的变化特征,提出了在该类岩石地区进行工程建设时应采取的措施.     

基于扫描电镜图像和微观渗流模型的云冈石窟砂岩风化特征分析

风化作用、岩石微观结构、岩石微观渗流特性定量关系的研究是石窟文物有效保护的重要基础,砂岩风化作用严重影响了岩体上石窟文物的有效保护。本次研究使用扫描电镜（SEM）获得云冈石窟不同窟体砂岩的微观图像,根据图像增强和图像分割技术得到了岩石中颗粒和孔隙的数字特征参数,从微观角度建立了反映孔喉连接特性的渗流模型,得到了不同窟体岩石的局部水力传导系数,分析了数字特征参数、水力传导系数、风化作用之间的关系。结果表明,风化作用对石窟砂岩微观结构具有很大影响;砂岩孔隙平均长轴长度大小对应的风化程度分别是全风化或强风化、中等风化、微风化或未风化,长度分别为大于40 μm、25～35 μm、15～25 μm;风化程度越高、水力传导系数越大,随着风化程度的增高、水力传导系数的范围为1 × 10?9～1 × 10?4 cm/s;水力传导系数与孔喉尺寸、孔喉连通性密切相关;孔喉半径比增大时、水力传导系数也增大。     

敦煌莫高窟玉门组砂砾岩风化特征研究

风化是引起莫高窟围岩（砂砾岩）破坏的一种重要病害,严重影响莫高窟的长期保存。为研究莫高窟玉门组砂砾岩的风化特征,选取莫高窟南侧一处崖体为试验点,采用逐层剥离的方法,分别在距崖体侧表面0cm、3cm、5cm、8cm及10cm深度处进行现场声波测试、回弹测试并取样进行X-射线衍射试验和易溶盐试验。试验结果表明:莫高窟围岩在风化作用下强度降低,现场声波测试和回弹测试结果均随着开挖深度的增加而不断升高;砂砾岩胶结物的主要矿物为石英、方解石、长石、白云石、石膏等,主要黏土矿物是绿泥石;其可溶盐主要包括Na₂SO₄、NaCl、CaSO₄等。同时结合气象数据及试验结果,分析了影响岩体风化的主要因素,初步讨论了岩体的风化机理,包括:（1）温度应力引起岩体结构破坏和裂隙发育;（2）胶结物中的主要矿物方解石易于发生水化作用,转化成易溶的Ca（HCO₃）₂,发生迁移,破坏岩体的胶结结构;（3）盐风化也是岩体风化的一个重要方式,Na₂SO₄、CaSO₄等可溶盐在水汽作用下发生溶解、结晶及水合作用,体积膨胀,对孔隙壁产生较大压力,致使岩体颗粒之间联结减弱,结构破坏,裂隙发育。     

黄河拉西瓦水电站坝区花岗岩风化研究

风化作用对于岩体工程地质性能的降低不言而喻。研究探讨重大水电工程岩石风化作用机理对于工程区岩体风化带划分、风化渐进性分析、表征岩体风化特征指标的选择及力学性质参数取值等具有重要意义。文章从风化作用本质、化学元素迁移、风化作用类型等角度,对拉西瓦水电站坝区花岗岩风化作用机理进行了探讨。结合本区气候演化、岩石性质、地形条件等综合分析认为:在浅表河谷范围内,风化形式以岩石胀缩作用和冰劈作用为主,而化学风化作用并不强烈。论文采用量化指标对岩体进行风化带划分,选取的定量指标有平硐纵波速度Vp、钻孔RQD、裂隙间距与单元面积节理数等。在此基础上,利用电站20余a来丰富详实的地质、物探、岩体测试等大量资料,采用定性分析与定量划分相结合的研究方法,对黄河拉西瓦坝基花岗岩体进行风化分带,得出坝基岩体风化带总体空间布局。     

Wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometric determination of Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in komatiites

Komatiites are mantle-derived ultramafic volcanic rocks. Komatiites have been discovered in several States of India, notably in Karnataka. Studies on the distribution of trace-elements in the komatiites of India are very few. This paper proposes a simple, accurate, precise, rapid, and non-destructive wavelength-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) spectrometric technique for determining Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in komatiites, and discusses the accuracy, precision, limits of detection, x-ray spectral-line interferences, inter-element effects, speed, advantages, and limitations of the technique. The accuracy of the technique is excellent (within 3%) for Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th and very good (within 4%) for Y. The precision is also excellent (within 3%) for Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th. The limits of detection are: 1 ppm for Sc and V; 2 ppm for Cr, Co, and Ni; 3 ppm for Cu, Zn, Rb, and Sr; 4 ppm for Y and Zr; 6 ppm for Nb; 10 ppm for Ba; 13 ppm for Pb; and 14 ppm for Th. The time taken for determining Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in a batch of 24 samples of komatiites, for a replication of four analyses per sample, by one operator, using a manual WDXRF spectrometer, is only 60 hours.     

高压微波消解法测定醋酸纤维过滤器采集的微尘粒子中的砷镉钴铬铜铁锰镍铅钒锌

最新的流行病学研究表明,空气中较高浓度的悬浮细颗粒可能对人类的健康有不利的影响。根据该项研究显示,由于心脏病、慢性呼吸问题和肺功能指标恶化而导致死亡率的升高与细尘粒子有关。这些研究结果已经促使欧盟于1999年4月出台了限制空气中二氧化硫、二氧化氮、氧化氮、铅和颗粒物含量的法案（1999/30/EC）,对各项指标包括对可吸入PM10颗粒的浓度提出了新的限制性指标。PM10颗粒是指可以通过预分级器分离采集的气体动力学直径小于10 μm的细颗粒。目前研究的兴趣重点逐步偏向PM2.5这些更细微颗粒物,PM2.5这种颗粒物对健康有明显的不利影响。在欧盟指令2008/50/EC中,对PM10和PM2.5都提出了具体测定要求。     

Isotopic systematics of He,Ar, S,Cu, Ni,Re, Os,Pb, U,Sm, Nd,Rb, Sr,Lu, and Hf in the rocks and ores of the Norilsk deposits

This paper reports the first results of a study of 11 isotope systems (³He/⁴He, ⁴⁰Ar/³⁶Ar, ³⁴S/³²S, ⁶⁵Cu/⁶³Cu, ⁶²Ni/⁶⁰Ni, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd, ^206–208Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, Hf–Nd, U–Pb, and Re–Os) in the rocks and ores of the Cu–Ni–PGE deposits of the Norilsk ore district. Almost all the results were obtained at the Center of Isotopic Research of the Karpinskii All-Russia Research Institute of Geology. The use of a number of independent genetic isotopic signatures and comprehensive isotopic knowledge provided a methodic basis for the interpretation of approximately 5000 isotopic analyses of various elements. The presence of materials from two sources, crust and mantle, was detected in the composition of the rocks and ores. The contribution of the crustal source is especially significant in the paleofluids (gas–liquid microinclusions) of the ore-forming medium. Crustal solutions were probably a transport medium during ore formation. Air argon is dominant in the ores, which indicates a connection between the paleofluids and the atmosphere. This suggests intense groundwater circulation during the crystallization of ore minerals. The age of the rocks and ores of the Norilsk deposits was determined. The stage of orebody formation is restricted to a narrow age interval of 250 ± 10 Ma. An isotopic criterion was proposed for the ore-bearing potential of mafic intrusions in the Norilsk–Taimyr region. It includes several interrelated isotopic ratios of various elements: He, Ar, S, and others.     

硅酸盐中铁、锰、钛、钙、钾、磷、硅、铝、镁、钠、锶、铷、钡的X-射线荧光光谱定量测定

本文介绍样品经四硼酸锂熔融制成玻璃小饼。采用Lachance模式和理论a系数来校正元素间的效应,由3080E型X-射线荧光谱仪和DF-350B数据处理系统完成硅酸盐中十三个项目的测定。     

硅酸盐类样品中硅、铁、铝、钛、锰、钙、镁、钾、钠和磷的x射线荧光光谱测定

本文拟定了一种以熔融法制备样片,用X射线荧光光谱测定硅酸盐类样品中Si、Fe、Al、Tj、Mn、Ca、Mg、K、Na、P等元素的分析方法。在对不同靶材X光管和分光晶体实验对比的基础上,选择了最佳的测量条件。该法具有快速、准确,测量范围广,检测限低,价格便宜等优点。经过近百个各种类型标样或管理样品的分析对比表明,本法不仅适用于硅酸盐类岩石样品的分析,还适用于铁矿、铝土矿、碳酸盐类岩矿样品以及水泥、耐火材料等样品的分析。     

Viscous, cohesive, non-Newtonian, depositing, radial slurry flow

Mining induced subsidence can significantly affect mining costs where major surface facilities and natural environment need to be protected. Overburden grout injection is a technology used to control coal mine subsidence by injecting the mine waste material extracted from the coal back into the inter-burden rock during longwall mining. The flowing slurry is here categorised as a nonlinear viscous cohesive (Bingham plastic) fluid. During longwall mining the grout slurry is pumped into the separated beds of the rock mass through a central vertical borehole, which is drilled deep into the inter-burden rock strata above the coal seam. However, a blockage can occur in the injection system when the slurry velocity falls below a certain critical threshold velocity, indicating a material phase change from cohesive-viscous to cohesive-frictional. In situ field injection tests through boreholes have been simulated at a smaller scale at the CSIRO laboratory in Brisbane by pumping the slurry through a radial disk (gap = 4 mm) from its centre. Laboratory experiments indicate a general, nonlinear, cohesive, viscous, frictional model for shear behaviour of the slurry, in which the material shear parameters are functions of the disk radial distance. Complete dimensional and dimensionless analytical solutions have been developed based on an approach related to Bingham–Herschel–Bulkley fluid mechanics. The derived formulae include relations for minimum pump pressure, local pressure and pressure gradient, wall shear stress, volume rate, velocity and velocity gradient. The theoretical results match the experimental measurements. The experiments covered slurries with maximum particle sizes of 0.5 to 2 mm with about 50% being larger than 100 µm. The viscosities at the various solids concentrations were measured with a standard torsion viscometer. This study differs from the previous research in several distinct aspects, namely, consideration of the variable shear parameters rather than fixed values, inclusion of total nonlinear behaviour, and implementation of a friction function to mimic behaviour of the deposited and consolidating stiff slurry, which can cause a significant pressure rise as a result of the increased shear resistance.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Regional distribution of Al,B, Ba,Ca, K,La, Mg,Mn, Na,P, Rb,Si, Sr,Th, U and Y in terrestrial moss within a 188,000 km2 area of the central Barents region: influence of geology,seaspray and human activity

Five hundred and ninety-eight samples of terrestrial moss (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) collected from a 188,000 km² area of the central Barents region (NE Norway, N Finland, NW Russia) were analysed by ICP-AES and ICP-MS. Analytical results for Al, B, Ba, Ca, K, La, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Rb, Si, Sr, Th, U and Y concentrations are reported here. Graphical methods of data analysis, such as geochemical maps, cumulative frequency diagrams, boxplots and scatterplots, are used to interpret the origin of the patterns for these elements. None of the elements reported here are emitted in significant amounts from the smelting industry on the Kola Peninsula. Despite the conventional view that moss chemistry reflects atmospheric element input, the nature of the underlying mineral substrate (regolith or bedrock) is found to have a considerable influence on moss composition for several elements. This influence of the chemistry of the mineral substrate can take place in a variety of ways. (1) It can be completely natural, reflecting the ability of higher plants to take up elements from deep soil horizons and shed them with litterfall onto the surface. (2) It can result from naturally increased soil dust input where vegetation is scarce due to harsh climatic conditions for instance. Alternatively, substrate influence can be enhanced by human activity, such as open-cast mining, creation of ‘technogenic deserts’, or handling, transport and storage of ore and ore products, all of which magnify the natural elemental flux from bedrock to ground vegetation. Seaspray is another natural process affecting moss composition in the area (Mg, Na), and this is most visible in the Norwegian part of the study area. Presence or absence of some plant species, e.g., lichens, seems to influence moss chemistry. This is shown by the low concentrations of B or K in moss on the Finnish and Norwegian side of the (fenced) border with Russia, contrasting with high concentrations on the other side (intensive reindeer husbandry west of the border has selectively depleted the lichen population).     

NEW SET OF LOW CONCENTRATION STANDARDS FOR LA, CE, SM, YB, LU, Y, SC, V, NB AND TA IN SILICATES

We have developed a set of four synthetic standards for the rare earth and high field strength elements designed for use in the determination of those elements in silicates. The base material is a glass nominally at the eutectic of the MgO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ ternary system. The nominal doping level was 2 wt% of the elements as oxides. To avoid problems associated with peak interference, the elements were doped in four separate glasses.