Renewable energy from the ocean

Growing concern over the threat of global climate change has led to an increased interest in research and development of renewable energy technologies. The ocean provides a vast source of potential energy resources, and as renewable energy technology develops, investment in ocean energy is likely to grow. Research in ocean thermal energy conversion, wave energy, tidal energy, and offshore wind energy has led to promising technologies and in some cases, commercial deployment. These sources have the potential to help alleviate the global climate change threat, but the ocean environment should be protected while these technologies are developed. Renewable energy sources from the ocean may be exploited without harming the marine environment if projects are sited and scaled appropriately and environmental guidelines are followed.     

基于能值分析的江苏省绿色海洋经济可持续发展研究

随着海洋经济的迅速发展,开发利用海洋资源与保护生态环境之间的矛盾日益突出,因此,评估绿色海洋经济可持续发展的态势对促进海洋经济和生态环境的协调发展意义深远。本文以江苏省为研究区,利用能值分析理论和方法,将海洋经济系统内可更新资源、不可更新资源、货币流、废物流等各类要素,通过能值转换率转换为统一标准的太阳能值,采用海域能值-货币比率、人均海域能值使用量、能值可持续发展指数、绿色海洋生产总值(绿色GOP)等指标,测度了2011—2015年江苏省绿色海洋经济可持续发展水平,旨在推进海洋经济可持续发展研究方法的应用,为江苏省海洋经济系统的综合评价及可持续发展管理提供科学依据。研究表明:(1)2011—2015年,江苏省绿色GOP持续增长,占传统GOP的比重从74.8%升至77.8%,表明江苏省在海洋经济快速增长的过程中,没有忽视对海洋资源和生态环境的保护。(2)江苏省绿色海洋经济可持续发展处于不稳定的状态:2011年可持续发展指数为12.77,2012—2015年可持续发展指数在6.87～9.70之间波动,表明江苏省海洋经济系统从经济不发达以及对海洋资源的开发利用程度不足,逐步过渡到海洋经济富有活力,发展效益好,可持续性强。     

黄河入海水、沙通量变化对黄河口及邻近海域环境资源可持续利用的影响 Ⅱ. 黄河断流和入海流量锐减所引起的海洋环境变化

传统的观点认为，河水流入大海是一种浪费。为了充分利用河水资源，在大河干流筑坝引水、发电，据美国学者Milliman(1997)统计，1950年世界上大坝的数量约为5000座，20世纪80年代疾增到40000多座。大量淡水被贮存或用在陆地，入海径流便大幅度减少，导致大河河口及其邻近海域生态环境发生重大变化，海洋生物资源遭受到重大损失。加利福尼亚湾内科罗拉多河河口三角洲及其滨海区原为美国西南部最大的沙漠湿地，湿地资源极为丰富，海湾区曾是世界上鱼类最多、捕鱼量最高的海区之一，具有海洋生物资源非常丰富的良好生态环境。然而，由于科罗拉多河多道筑坝截流、入海径流量锐减，导致部分湿地干枯、生态环境退化、水质下降，海湾内捕鱼量急剧减少，许多依赖河流冲淡水发育的生物之生存发育面临毁灭的威胁；密西西比河三角洲区的湿地、潟湖区也因该河干流上大坝的不断兴建而导致生态环境退化；埃及阿斯旺大坝兴建后，由于入海水、沙等物质通量的大幅度减少，使地中海东部海区的沙丁鱼产量下降了近83%，海岸遭受强烈侵蚀，三角洲面积不断缩小。20世纪70年代初期，印度的恒河兴建法拉卡大坝，河口三角洲西岸陆域出现了明显的海水倒灌现象，同时引起了印、孟两国20多年的分水之争。     

Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe

The European Union׳s energy policy aims to increase the proportion of energy derived from renewable sources in Europe. Marine renewable energy, offshore wind energy especially, contributes to the renewable energy mix. Offshore wind farms appear to be clean, and are supported by governments and NGOs as a way to reduce the use of conventional energy resources and thus decrease greenhouse gas emissions. However, developing infrastructure in marine areas can impact marine ecosystems. European directives ask offshore wind farm developers to carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including a mitigation hierarchy, i.e. envisaging measures that would avoid, reduce, and if possible offset significant adverse effects on ecosystems and human activities. This paper reviews EIA reports from seven European countries and is focused on impacts on the open water marine environment. According to the reports, measures have been taken for avoiding and reducing impacts, so there should be no significant negative residual impacts and hence no need of offsets. But the mitigation hierarchy for ecological impacts seems to have been incompletely implemented, because it is unlikely that there are no significant residual impacts. The paper proposes some technical and ecological explanations, followed by some governance and social explanations, for the absence of biodiversity offsets.     

全球气候变化下海洋环流多尺度演变：联动协同与环境生态效应初探

海洋环流是海洋系统物质能量收支、配置、平衡、维持和变化的关键通道与机制。从全球海洋视角,基于目前海洋环流多变率动力过程与趋势演变的认知,重点综述气候变化下海洋环流的海盆尺度三维联动特征机制、洋际交换与协同、世界大洋经向输运变化以及相关的海洋气候与环境生态效应,依据研究现状和需求,提出研究建议。结果表明：全球一致性变暖路径与进程调控下,受驱动因子的演变与胁迫,海洋环流变化对副热带中高纬地区年际、年代际气候与环境变迁具有突出作用影响,并可产生显著环境生态效应和严重致灾风险。建议加大专精特新观测仪器自主研发,通过国际合作加大中高纬海洋环流多尺度动力过程综合调查的参与度和主导性,增强多学科融合交叉研究力度,有效提升深层次海洋环流变异及动力、环境、生态灾害影响的气候变化综合风险预测预评估和防治能力,为海洋领域能源开发、生态系统保护、气候变化应对与灾害风险治理提供必要的动力学参考。     

Environmental implications of wave energy proposals for the outer hebrides and Moray Firth

The Nature Conservancy Council has carried out appraisals for the Department of Energy of environmental implications of siting full-scale floating or seabed-mounted wave energy converters off the west coast of the Outer Hebrides and full-scale floating devices off the Moray Firth.Converters would have a variety of effects on the hydraulic environment, most noticeably by modifying the local wave climate. A decrease in incident wave energy would influence shores and shallow subtidal areas and result in changes in the density and species of organisms they support. Extensive shell-sand beaches occur along the west coast of the Uists but although wave activity and wave steepness would be reduced, accretion on these beaches might be limited by the availability of sediment. Fixed converters off the Hebrides would have more pronounced environmental impacts than offshore floating devices, mainly through their greater sheltering effect, the possibly stronger tidal flows generated between devices and shores, and the need to site fixed converters in the kelp zone.Devices would represent a new habitat for colonisation by attached algae and invertebrates and would probably attract fish, seabirds and seals. Seabed-mounted devices, once no longer operational, would become artificial reefs if left in place.Device noise might affect communication and navigation systems of fish and marine mammals. The navigational hazard to shipping posed by converters would be likely to increase the risk of severe oil pollution incidents in areas that are populated by internationally important numbers of seabirds.Other impacts would arise from the construction and maintenance of devices, an increased demand for building aggregate, the likelihood of intertidal flats being reclaimed, and conversion and transmission of energy, and the general associated developments and industrialisation that would ensue.It is concluded that although wave energy conversion harnesses a renewable source of energy it is not necessarily environmentally benign. Nevertheless, no environmental questions have been raised which would necessarily rule out further consideration of this energy source.     

海上风电工程对海洋生物影响的研究进展

随着世界各国对能源安全、生态环境、气候变化等问题日益重视,加快发展风电已成为国际社会推动能源转型发展、应对全球气候变化的普遍共识和一致行动。过去十余年,我国海上风电产业受益于国家政策的大力推动而蓬勃发展,大有乘势崛起,赶超其他清洁能源的势头。相比陆上风电场,海上风电场对环境的影响较小,但其开发实施以及运行对海洋生态环境和资源开发的累积影响还尚不明确。本文系统全面地梳理了海上风电工程对鸟类、鱼类、海洋哺乳动物、底栖生物、浮游生物及海洋生物多样性等影响的研究进展,总结了海上风电环境影响研究的现状。结合我国实际,提出了将科学研究与海上风电工程环境影响评价紧密结合,开展海上风电项目对区域生态环境影响的研究等有关建议。     

基于长时间序列ERA-Interim再分析资料的广东沿海波浪能资源分布特征分析

波浪能的开发利用作为海洋可再生能源发展的重要组成部分,持续受到社会和学界的广泛关注。广东省波浪能资源的开发利用具有得天独厚的优势,但其发展水平还处于探索阶段,亟须进一步加强。本文利用长达40年(1979—2018年)的ERA-Interim再分析波浪资料,从总体分布特征上分析了广东沿海波浪能资源及其长期变化趋势。粤东-珠江口-粤西沿岸一线,波浪能资源呈现"低-高-低-高-低"的分布特征,具有显著的季节变化特征;长期变化趋势上呈现显著的逐年线性递增特征,递增速率为0.054 3 kW/(m·a),其中1979—1994年变化较为快速,2001—2018年变化较为平缓。     

Marine governance in an industrialised ocean: A case study of the emerging marine renewable energy industry

The world׳s oceans are currently undergoing an unprecedented period of industrialisation, made possible by advances in technology and driven by our growing need for food, energy and resources. This is placing the oceans are under intense pressure, and the ability of existing marine governance frameworks to sustainably manage the marine environment is increasingly being called into question. Emerging industries are challenging all aspects of these frameworks, raising questions regarding ownership and rights of the sea and its resources, management of environmental impacts, and management of ocean space. This paper uses the emerging marine renewable energy (MRE) industry, particularly in the United Kingdom (UK), as a case study to introduce and explore some of the key challenges. The paper concludes that the challenges are likely to be extensive and argues for development of a comprehensive legal research agenda to advance both MRE technologies and marine governance frameworks.     

An assessment of global ocean wave energy resources over the last 45 a

Against the background of the current world facing an energy crisis,and human beings puzzled by the problems of environment and resources,developing clean energy sources becomes the inevitable choice to deal with a climate change and an energy shortage.A global ocean wave energy resource was reanalyzed by using ERA-40 wave reanalysis data 1957–2002 from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF).An effective significant wave height is defined in the development of wave energy resources(short as effective SWH),and the total potential of wave energy is exploratively calculated.Synthetically considering a wave energy density,a wave energy level probability,the frequency of the effective SWH,the stability and long-term trend of wave energy density,a swell index and a wave energy storage,global ocean wave energy resources were reanalyzed and regionalized,providing reference to the development of wave energy resources such as wave power plant location,seawater desalination,heating,pumping.     

Responses of humpback whales to a changing climate in the Southern Hemisphere: Priorities for research efforts

Globally, baleen whales were severely depleted by historic whaling. Recovering populations have been observed to alter their behaviour. These changes have been attributed to climate change in some cases and raise concerns over the successful recovery of baleen whale populations. Current data-driven statistical habitat and behavioural models have proven useful for addressing questions of whale distribution changes within their limitations. Given observed changes in oceanic conditions, a new approach to managing baleen whale population recovery is necessary. Model predictions of future whale movements and distributions under climate change scenarios are vital to enable adequate conservation management. This paper presents a new perspective on understanding the impacts of climate change on humpback whales, arguing the need for a system-based multidisciplinary research approach. Our approach includes coupled, mechanistic models based upon robust ecological principles, and integrates key physical, biogeochemical, biological and ecological modules to address long-term changes associated with climate change. To illustrate the need for this system-based multidisciplinary approach, we focus on Southern Hemisphere humpback whales, the recovery of which may be impacted by rapid changes in habitat conditions brought about by anthropogenic climate change.     

海洋能发电装置现场检测平台设计

随着国际社会对海洋可再生能源开发利用的关注,众多海洋能发电装置投入研发。目前我国已有相当一部分海洋能发电装置进入海试阶段。因此,在海洋能发电装置海试的过程中,需要对海洋能发电装置的发电性能进行检测。文中介绍了海洋能发电装置现场检测平台的设计,研究并设计检测方法以满足海洋能发电装置现场检测的需求。海洋能发电装置现场检测平台的设计以满足波浪能、潮流能发电装置的测试需求为主,兼顾其他形式的发电装置。该平台主要对海洋能发电装置的功率特性、电能质量特性以及电网适应性等指标进行测试,并根据海洋能发电装置的测试结果开展分析与评价。     

Towards best environmental practice for cetacean conservation in developing Scotland's marine renewable energy

Marine renewable energy is seen as an important component of the UK's future energy strategy and contribution to reducing the greenhouse gas emissions responsible for climate change. The UK aims to generate a total of 33 GW (gigawatts) of offshore wind energy. Its implementation strategy includes the development of ten offshore wind farms within Scottish territorial waters. In addition, between 1000 MW (megawatts) and 2600 MW of marine renewable energy generating capacity could be achieved in Scotland using wave and tidal power devices. However, there are negative environmental impacts associated with marine renewable energy. Intense noise is produced during pile driving, drilling and dredging operations with potential consequences for cetaceans. There are also increases in vessel activities during exploration, maintenance and construction with association risks of disturbance and collisions. Some underwater devices will be large and may be positioned in arrays across the habitats that cetaceans frequent. The consequences of encounters between cetaceans and such devices are as yet unknown. It is recommended that the Scottish Government complete full and transparent Marine Spatial Planning, including consideration of cumulative impacts, before moving to license appropriate sites.     

海洋温差能开发特点及其对生态环境的影响方式

根据海洋温差能转换(OTEC)工艺过程的特点,分析了海洋温差能开发对海洋生态环境的特殊影响。认为大流量吸排水形成的大尺度水团在海洋中的重新分布,致使厂址周边海水的层化结构和环流结构以及海水盐度、溶解氧和营养水平等参数发生变化,进而对海洋环境造成很大改变,形成了OTEC技术特殊的环境影响方式。还着重分析了羽状流对初级生产力的影响,以及卷载和冲击对海洋生物的影响,分析归纳了海洋温差能开发生态环境影响的关键评价因子,对下一步的研究重点提出了建议。为未来开展洋温差能开发以及全面评价海洋温差能开发造成的生态环境影响提供技术参考。     

山东省海洋牧场观测网的建设与发展

在全球气候变化的背景下，现代化海洋牧场是我国应对近海生态环境恶化和渔业资源衰退、实现海洋生态文明和海洋强国战略的重要手段。而海洋牧场观测网是科学指导现代化海洋牧场建设，并进行科学管理的重要基础。为了保障现代化海洋牧场的可持续健康发展，山东省于2015年底开始在各海洋牧场建设生态环境海底观测站，并组网建成世界先进的海洋牧场观测网，目前已覆盖23处海洋牧场。设立观测网预警中心，负责海洋牧场观测网的日常运行和维护，同时开展水域多学科耦合过程的基础研究和业务化辅助决策的应用服务。海洋牧场观测网的建立和业务化运行初步实现了海洋牧场生态环境和渔业资源的"可测"、"可视"、"可控"和"可预警"。目前，我国现代化海洋牧场观测网的科学发展仍面临诸多挑战，建议进一步增强观测设备的自主研发能力和长期在线监测的稳定性，跨介质立体组网、实现海洋牧场的全方位立体监测，深化多学科耦合过程的基础研究并提供多元业务化辅助决策应用服务，为现代化海洋牧场的高质量发展保驾护航。     

海洋酸化对浮游植物生理生态影响的研究进展

当前全球气候变化下的上层海洋变暖与酸化对以浮游植物为主的海洋生态系产生了重大影响,理解此背景下的海洋浮游植物生理生态响应,对我们理解和抑制全球气候变化具有重要意义。在全球大气二氧化碳分压（pCO₂）升高情景下,浮游植物通过光合作用、微生物循环等过程,通过不同功能群对海洋生源要素循环模式的改变,进而影响区域及全球海洋的生物地球化学循环。研究全球浮游植物对海洋酸化生理生态的响应使得我们对生物地球化学系统的认识更加全面、系统。     

海底有缆在线观测系统研究与应用综述

获取高质量海洋观测数据是维护国家安全和权益、保障人类生存与可持续发展、应对全球气候变化、开发利用海洋资源、防灾减灾等的重要基础。随着海底观测技术的发展,海底有缆观测已成为地球观测的第三个平台。通过借鉴国内外海底观测网的成熟技术,设计研发单节点海底有缆在线观测系统,主要包含海底观测、电力信息传输和陆上人机交互信息管理等三个子系统,具有高度可扩展性,可根据监测需求集成安装常用的各类海洋观测仪器和水下高清摄像头,从而实现海洋环境和水下生物资源的原位、长期、连续、稳定的在线观测。研发的海底有缆在线观测系统构造简单、扩展性强、经济成本低,已广泛应用于山东省海洋牧场观测网的海洋生态环境和渔业资源、辽东湾的冬季海冰、海洋牧场与海上风电的融合效应、河流入海口水质、海上溢油等不同领域的业务化监测中,为我国海洋生态环境保护与修复、海洋资源开发利用、海洋防灾减灾等提供了高质量的科学数据支撑。海底有缆在线观测系统是业务化海洋在线观测技术领域里的创新研究,具有重要科学意义和广泛应用前景。     

海岛海洋能应用需求和发展建议探讨

海岛海洋能是海岛地区绿色、清洁、低碳的海洋可再生能源,主要包括海岛潮汐能、海岛潮流能、海岛波浪能、海岛温差能等,与海岛风能、海岛太阳能统称为海岛可再生能源。《海洋可再生能源发展"十三五"规划》明确提出"积极利用海岛可再生能源",为其开发利用指明了方向。我国海岛海洋能资源储量丰富,其开发利用有助于解决制约海岛发展、海上装备运行、深海资源开发等用电问题,对于调整海岛能源结构、保护海岛海洋生态环境也具有十分重要的战略意义。文章总结了发展海洋能的重要意义,描述了我国海洋能产业的发展现状,对海岛海洋能开发利用成果进行了梳理,分析了海洋能在海岛应用的需求及前景,从顶层设计、激励政策、实施科技创新、开放共享等方面给出了促进海岛海洋能产业化的发展建议。     

Marine renewables and coastal communities—Experiences from the offshore oil industry in the 1970s and their relevance to marine renewables in the 2010s

Ambition to create jobs and economic growth from the vast open spaces of the oceans and seas is made real by new and developing technologies. In the 2010s, renewable energy generated from wind, wave and tide is laying claim to large areas of marine space and driving the search to find new ways to manage ocean and coastal development. Many more activities are expected and precedents are currently being set for the future of marine governance. Several observers have drawn parallels with the development of offshore oil and gas in the 1970s, which also represented a step change in use of the seas and coasts. The change was particularly felt in the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos, at the centre of the North Sea oilfields. Special powers were granted to the county councils here to control development and share in its benefits. This paper compares the oil and renewables industries, separated in time by nearly 40 years, and their influence on adjacent communities. The similarities and differences are identified to test the hypothesis that the 1970s oil model of local participation could be repeated for the development of marine renewables in the 2010s. The conclusion is that the model could well be applied but that the political and policy drivers of today make it unlikely, at least for the time being. Most notably, the change in the role of the public and private sectors and the use of market instruments to achieve national objectives tend to favour a climate of central control.     

Gauging perceptions of ocean acidification in Alaska

While ocean acidification (OA) poses a significant threat to ocean-related ecosystems and communities reliant on marine fisheries, aquaculture, and coral reef systems, limited public understanding and awareness can prevent coastal regions from being able to adequately assess the need for OA adaptation or mitigation. This study assessed public understanding of OA and how social and demographic factors influence the public’s concern for OA. The analysis was based on 311 questionnaires from full-time Alaska residents. The results showed that most Alaskans self-reported to have a basic awareness of OA, and subsequently were able to recognize that CO₂ emissions related to human activity are the dominant driver of changing ocean conditions. However, there was a low recognition of how natural variability in the marine environment affects OA, and most respondents were not very confident in their understanding of OA-related science. Moreover, even though many communities in Alaska are reliant on commercial and subsistence fishing activities, the respondents had a low awareness of fisheries-related OA risk. Given the ongoing debate associated with climate change research, evaluating CO₂ mitigation efforts through the perspective of OA could give individuals an unbiased way to assess the pros and cons of more intensive efforts to curb CO₂ emissions. Furthermore, using OA communication to enhance the understanding of how natural variability influences OA around the state and the potential economic implications for Alaska fisheries would help residents and stakeholders make informed decisions when considering fisheries management plans, food security, and job diversity as OA intensifies. Solidifying the understanding that any reduction in pH and intensification of OA can have implications for marine species that are irreversible on human timescales will reinforce not only that OA is an immediate concern, but also the importance of taking action now.