The ICZM Balanced Scorecard: A tool for putting integrated coastal zone management into action

Coastal areas are characterised by the choice of performance measures and/or reference points which may be critical in the environmental management process, determining the success of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan. The tools for the strategic control of ICZM plans are particularly important, although they are still not widely used at the local level. The following paper proposes the use of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) method of Kaplan and Norton (1992), which is a holistic management performance tool that can be used by managers to put into action their business strategy. In particular the methodology has focused on the use of a BSC process, inspired by the Niven (2003) approach for public bodies. The BSC suggests the creation of a framework for the strategic assessment of plans and projects based on the Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean (Protocol). An analysis of the Protocol has been carried out according to the BSC model, and it shows how it can be integrated with assessment and environmental management tools, such as the Driving forces, Pressures, States, Impacts and Responses (DPSIR) framework. The proposed process has suggested a novel framework for analysing the ICZM plans of coastal managers and stakeholders. The analytical framework facilitates the examination of Drivers and causes of the ICZM strategy, the possible impact on society and coastal communities, the most appropriate measures to achieve the objectives and the practicalities of implementing such measures given the institutional context of where these are developed.     

The convergence of Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the ecosystems approach

The primary role of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management model was to arbitrate conflicts between stakeholders in a living and natural resource environment characterized by a common property and open access doctrine. A chronology of events describes how the development and acceptance of an ecosystems approach policy began to converge and coincide with the spread and development of Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Those organizations that gave representation to the conservation ethic became internationally recognized as surrogate natural resource ‘users’, the interests of which possessed commonality with all stakeholder interests in general. The tenants of conservation policy were therefore largely employed to decide the merits of disputes over ocean and coastal resources.In the 1990s, scientists created a forum to debate, better define, and institutionalize a sound basis for ecosystem management theory and practice. Protocols were developed that embedded science in living and natural resources planning and management. These protocols were shaped and adopted to serve an evermore contemporary Integrated Coastal Zone Management model. Improvements in methodology include the use of adaptive management, ecological modeling and monitoring, appropriate temporal and spatial scales, salient indicators, and stakeholder participation. This contemporary approach is dependent upon recognizing the benefits inherent in utilizing instruments capable of managing resources on a holistic level.Bioregional planning and zoning accommodate the successful management of resources on this level. It is a direct outcome of the convergence of Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the ecosystems approach. Bioregional zoning schemes are capable of traversing the private property and common property doctrines that define the respective terrestrial and aquatic environments of the coastal zone.A comparative case study of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Belize Marine Protected Area Program is included as an annex, the analysis of which is predicated upon the principles espoused in the literature.     

Towards ecosystem-based fisheries management in Norway – Practical tools for keeping track of relevant issues and prioritising management efforts

The present paper presents the practical implementation of the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM) in Norway. This involves defining management objectives and developing simple and efficient tools to achieve an overview of management needs and prioritise among these, while integrating broader conservation issues and ensuring stakeholder involvement. A new Marine Resources Act entered into force in Norway in 2009. By integrating conservation and sustainable use as basic principles, the law represents a paradigm shift in the management of Norwegian fisheries. The law indicates which concerns should be addressed, but neither how nor how often evaluations should take place. That is for management to decide. A management principle in the Marine Resources Act confers on the Ministry an obligation to evaluate whether continued fishing at the present scale is justifiable, or whether improved management is required to ensure sustainability. A Stock table, and a table of "Catches of data-poor species" constitute a comprehensive system for monitoring the management principle. Along with a Fisheries table, these tables establish a framework for developing an ecosystem-based fisheries management by providing a basis and tools for prioritising the needs of new and/or revised management measures.     

Management of Mediterranean coastal dunes

This paper gives some theoretical concepts of dune management as well as practical examples of how actual measures should be carried out.Dune management is defined as all measures aimed at the preservation and restoration of the natural values of a coastal sand dune area. It is essential that beach and foreshore are seen as parts of a whole dune system. Management must take into account all processes within this system. It should aim at nature conservation and wise use of coastal resources and all forms of land use should be ecologically sustainable. Dune management should work as much as possible ‘with’ the natural processes and not ‘against’ them.Four types of Mediterranean dune systems (including Portugal and SW Spain) are distinguished:: mainland dunes, lagoon-bay barrier dunes, delta dunes and remnant dunes.Like in most parts of the world, Mediterranean dunes fulfill several functions at the same time. The following functions will be dealt with: nature management, coastal defence and erosion, dune stabilisation and afforestation, agriculture, tourism and urbanisation, recreation, golf, information and education. The concepts of management which are considered include: sustainable use, large and coherent units, compensation, management planning, environmental impact assessment and function analysis.Dune stabilisation is not always considered necessary. In case of stabilisation by planting, only indigenous species should be used, preferably pioneers and not trees. Planting of exotic species should be avoided.     

Constraints and solutions for managing Pacific Island sea cucumber fisheries with an ecosystem approach

The ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) is a holistic paradigm that considers stocks of exploitable species, marine ecosystems and stakeholders. Management agencies must strike a balance between their capacity constraints and the requisites of management measures. Most small-scale sea cucumber fisheries of Pacific Islands have been plundered while others are being opened to commercial exploitation. Data from fishery managers and a regional workshop were used to assess the current problems, institutional constraints and solutions to the management of sea cucumber fisheries in 13 Pacific Island countries (PICs). Technical capacity was often strong for some management actions such as developing marine reserves but weak for others, such as enforcement. Using multi-disciplinary indicators, half of the fisheries were diagnosed by their managers as being overfished or depleted, despite evidence of optimistic bias. Fishery governance varied greatly among the PICs, and co-management frameworks were not typical of any cultural region. Management objectives were prioritised differently among managers but most highly ranked was to protect ecological resilience. The fishery managers proposed different sets of regulatory measures and various management actions, such as surveys to collect socio-economic and fishery-dependent data, support for local governance and strong enforcement – all widely under-practised. Pacific sea cucumber fisheries exemplify how the transition to an EAF by management institutions must involve reorganisation of their technical and human-resource capacities among management tasks. Levies on exports need to be internalised to fund improved management. Management agencies should consider a shift in resources from developing marine reserves, conducting underwater surveys and aquaculture-based restocking to strengthening enforcement capacity, stakeholder involvement and communication with fishers. In concert with these actions, short fishing seasons, shortlists of allowable species and tighter enforcement at export points may serve to turn the tide on boom-and-bust exploitation and safeguard biodiversity.     

Safety at sea and fisheries management:: fishermen's attitudes and the need for co-management

Safety at sea is a serious issue for the commercial fishing industry; it ranks highly in all assessments of occupational dangers including risk-taking, injuries, and fatalities. This paper examines the impact of fisheries management on safety at sea and the use of fishermen's input in the safety regulatory and management process. Using case study techniques of analysis, 22 boatowners, captains and crew all with a minimum of 10 years experience in the commercial fishing industry and from a common New England port (New Bedford) are interviewed. Findings strongly suggest that regulations that have been primarily designed to reduce pressure on fish stocks may also result in increased pressure on fishermen and decreased safety at sea. Attitudes about the role of the New England Fisheries Management Council and improvements to the safety regulatory and management process particularly with regard to the increased participation by fishermen are also examined.     

Management of transboundary estuaries in Latin America and the Caribbean

The need for integrated resource management in coastal and marine areas is increasingly urgent. Estuaries, as a representation of the relationship between river basins and coastal areas are spaces of convergence due to their natural characteristics. Transboundary estuaries also historically represent divisions between regions and countries, often presenting overlaid administrative domains and a complex situation to manage. This paper makes a meta-analysis of the main geographical and managerial characteristics of 17 cases of transboundary estuaries in Latin America and the Caribbean region (LAC). These cases are presented as examples of bilateral relations of cooperation and co-management of shared systems (fluvial, coastal and marine). The analysis of these estuaries in LAC demonstrated that there is an inadequate integration between River Basin Management and Coastal Areas Management, not considering the scope of a management based in ecosystems. It was also exposed that the articulation of international and national policies and the land and sea domains that take place at these locations determine the system management, as well as the use and distribution of shared resources.     

基于生态系统的海洋综合管理研究 ——以美国大沼泽湿地项目为例

基于生态系统的海洋综合管理是海洋管理的新理念和新模式,其倡导从海洋生态系统角度开展环境资源保护,并以促进海洋生态系统与人类开发活动的协调可持续发展为终极目标。美国大沼泽湿地项目是基于生态系统的海洋综合管理的经典范例。基于生态系统的海洋综合管理的核心理念是将整个生态系统纳入海洋综合管理范畴,颠覆传统的单一对象保护理念,实现海洋生态保护与人类生存发展协调可持续。美国大沼泽湿地项目采用了基于生态系统的海洋综合管理理念,将整个大沼泽湿地视为一个整体生态系统,实现联邦政府、州政府和社会组织协作,合力促进大沼泽湿地的绿色生态可持续发展。美国大沼泽湿地项目全面贯彻基于生态系统的海洋综合管理理念,采用联合管理模式,重视水资源环境治理取得一定成效,但也暴露出管理模式有待改进、公众宣传参与不到位、区域间联系不紧密等问题。     

Economic characteristics and management challenges of the Hawaii pelagic longline fisheries: Will a catch share program help?

To date, none of the fisheries in the U.S. Pacific Islands Region is managed under a catch share program. In light of the NOAA policy to encourage the use of catch shares as a fishery management tool, the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council (WPFMC) listed six commercial fisheries, including the Hawaii pelagic longline fishery, the largest in the region, as potential candidates for catch share programs. This study examines the baseline economic characteristics and the main challenges facing the Hawaii pelagic longline fishery and evaluates the impact of these on the desirability and feasibility of a catch share program for this particular fishery.     

海域使用管理信息系统的建立

通过分析海域使用管理信息系统的需求与现状，提出了建立海域管理信息系统的方案。根据数据量和共享需求，可建立两种海域管理系统：基于单机的系统和基于网络的系统。对两种系统进行了比较，利用GIS、关系型数据库和编程工具实现了该方案。     

Suggestions for fixing top-down coastal fisheries management through participatory approaches

Marine protected areas created in a top-down way can be costly and ineffective due to low compliance of resource users. Conversely, employing users’ local knowledge and involving them in decision-making processes could decrease costs and conflicts, in addition to increasing the chances of management success. Here the potential to change conflicting MPAs into conservation areas that take into account fishers’ use and knowledge is assessed based on a case study on the Brazilian coast (Paraty town). Fishers (n=206) from 11 villages were interviewed regarding their main fishing targets and gear, and then only the experienced ones (n=41) were interviewed from three main fishing villages about the most important commercial species. Fish landings were sampled for one year in these three villages (n=823), where participatory mapping and group interviews with fishers were also conducted to determine their opinions regarding management and how they thought it should be undertaken. Management measures should not be equivalent across the whole region, as there were clear differences in the target species and gear used. Fishers identified 55 important fishing spots, eight of which were important for more than five villages, while the experts identified 10 important fishing areas for the target species, which was supported by the sampling of fish landings. The fishers were not opposed to management and no-take reserves but would make some changes in the current design of these measures if it were up to them. Based on these data, a few changes were indicated in the design of these areas that would likely reduce the conflict between fishers and enforcement agencies. This kind of approach could be used as a framework for adapting conflictive MPAs or to support the establishment of new ones where fisheries are relevant.     

深教、疏导、严管、服务——渔政管理工作的探讨

本文深入细致地对做好国家渔业法规宣传教育重要性、必要性，对渔区经济结构因地制宜进行调整和疏导，严格渔政执法，寓管理于服务之中等方面进行阐述。     

Recommendations for the management of subsistence fisheries in South Africa

This paper summarizes recommendations for the management of previously marginalized and neglected subsistence fisheries in South Africa. The recommendations stem from the activities and analyses of a task group appointed by Government and mandated to provide advice about management of the new fishing sector. The following focus areas were identified for attention: planning for implementation; definitions of subsistence fishers and other sectors; assessment and categorization of resources; determination of types of fishing activities; zonation; management systems; training; communication mechanisms; application and allocation procedures; compliance processes; research and monitoring; development of institutional capacity. Subsistence fishers were defined as poor people who personally harvest marine resources as a source of food or to sell them to meet basic needs of food security; they operate on or near to the shore or in estuaries, live in close proximity to the resource, consume or sell the resources locally, use low-technology gear (often as part of a long-standing community-based or cultural practice), and the resources they harvest generate only sufficient returns to meet basic needs of food security. A second group of informal fishers was identified that fishes for profit but cannot be equated to large industrial fisheries, and a new sector was proposed to accommodate these artisanal "small-scale commercial" fishers. Resources were classified for use by these different sectors based on accessibility, fishing methods, cash value and sustainability. In all, 12 different categories of subsistence and small-scale commercial fisheries were identified, and a preliminary list of resource species suitable for different fishing sectors is presented. A multi-tiered institutional management structure is recommended, with the national agency (MCM) controlling issues of national concern, and supporting and coordinating the activities of provincial and local structures. The management agents required for effective implementation were identified and include a dedicated national Subsistence Fisheries Management Unit, provincial management agencies that have the capacity to be delegated authority, Regional Fieldworkers, an independent Advisory Group for Subsistence Fisheries Management, local co-management structures, and community monitors responsible for observing and recording fishing activities and catches. Co-management, involving both authorities and users in joint management, is advocated in preference to previous top-down approaches, because of its potential to improve communication and compliance.     

Considering community allocations: Power and the politics of enclosure in the Gulf of Alaska

In 2012, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council initiated the process of designing a new management structure for the Gulf of Alaska trawl groundfish fleet. The new program is currently structured as a catch share program and driven by the need to end the ‘race for fish’ and provide the trawl fleet with the tools to reduce bycatch. To date much of the discussion among policy makers and stakeholders has centered on community protection measures and how best to avoid the negative social and economic impacts of catch share programs including impacts to crew, consolidation and the flight of quota and resource wealth from Gulf of Alaska fishery dependent communities. This paper examines how community protection measures related to the distribution of benefits and access to fishery resources are considered and challenged in the North Pacific today. Special attention is given to the ongoing debate surrounding the potential inclusion of an initial allocation to place-based Gulf of Alaska communities via a Community Fishing Association. As part of this effort, this paper examines the political space and underlying power dynamics in which consideration of alternatives to the commodification of fishing rights occurs.     

海岸带综合管理和陆海统筹的概念内涵研究进展

随着海洋与海岸带开发利用活动的复杂化和深入化,海岸带地区的资源环境问题逐渐显露出来,经济效益降低,传统单一的海岸带管理模式无法满足海洋开发的需求。国外由此提出了海岸带综合管理的概念,我国与之对应的是陆海统筹发展战略。文章对海岸带综合管理与陆海统筹的发展历程进行梳理,分析其概念内涵及发展变化,并从战略目标、空间范围、功能范围和实施手段4个方面比较了二者内涵的异同。最后,指出海岸带综合管理与陆海统筹后续研究应加强海岸带综合管理典型案例研究,推动海岸带综合管理走向海岸带综合治理,探讨人、陆、海三者耦合的机理和过程,加强陆海统筹的发展路径研究。     

Towards an ecosystem-based approach of Guam's coral reefs: The human dimension

Management of tropical reef ecosystems under pressure from terrestrial and extractive marine activities is not straightforward, especially when the interests of extractive and non-extractive marine resource sectors compete. Before implementing management actions, potential outcomes of alternative management strategies can be evaluated in order to avoid adverse or unintended consequences. In tropical reef ecosystems the continued existence of the cultural and recreational fishing activities and the economically important dive-based tourism and recreation industry rest on sustainably managed marine resources. Through a case study of Guam, an ecosystem model was linked with human behavior models for participation in fishing and diving to evaluate future socio-ecological impacts of different management options. Ecosystem indices for reef status and resilience, and extraction potential were identified to evaluate the performance of alternative management scenarios. These marine ecosystem indices link the natural system to human uses (fishing and dive-based tourism and recreation). Evaluating management scenarios indicate that applying a single management tool, such as input controls or marine preserves, without also managing the watershed, is suboptimal. Combining different management tools has negative near-term costs, particularly for the fishing sector, but these are likely to be outweighed by the long-term benefits obtained from greater species abundance. Adopting watershed management measures in addition to fishery regulations distributes the burden for improving the reef status across multiple sectors that contribute to reef pressures.     

Policy-relevant assessment of community-level coastal management projects in Sri Lanka

Community-level coastal management programs are being introduced in some countries as a practical strategy to respond to conditions of poverty and unsustainable resource use practices. Two recently developed Special Area Management (SAM) programs developed in Sri Lanka are part of this international trend. These two SAM programs were assessed to identify planning and early management issues that may be relevant to future projects. This paper examines general issues in assessing community-level projects. The particular focus is on a few issues of general relevance: community participation in the planning process; the adequacy of the boundary; quality of the technical analysis; adequacy of resource management activities; transparency of management decisions; community acceptance of the program; and sustainability of resource management activities.     

Assessment and management of South African marine resources during the period of the Benguela Ecology Programme: key lessons and future directions

Three important developments in resource assessment and management during the period of the Benguela Ecology Programme are discussed. The first is the recognition of the limited information content for assessment purposes of the available data for many of the Benguela's major pelagic and demersal resources. This has meant that management measures for these resources could attempt no more than to maintain the status quo, rather than to achieve "optimal" utilization. Secondly, a post mortem on the commercial extinction of the kingklip suggests a need to consider Bayesian methods as a means to incorporate additional information into stock assessments. Finally, changes to the management approaches for the hake and anchovy fisheries are argued to have been particular successes, notwithstanding the recent heavily reduced Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the latter resource. "Management procedures" have been developed and simulation-tested for these two resources. The implications of this approach for the future basis, whereby TACs are set for South Africa's fisheries, are discussed.     

Coral reef management in Belize: an approach through integrated coastal zone management

Belize has one of the most extensive reef ecosystems in the Western Hemisphere, comprising one of the largest barrier reefs in the world, three atolls and a complex network of inshore reefs. Until recently, the main impacts were probably from natural events such as hurricanes. However, anthropogenic threats such as sedimentation, agrochemical run-off, coastal development, tourism and overfishing are now of concern. To limit these impacts, Belize is taking the approach of integrated coastal zone management. The programme is building on the existing legislative framework and involves the development of an appropriate institutional structure to co-ordinate management activities in the coastal zone. A Coastal Zone Management Plan is being prepared, which will include many measures that will directly benefit the reefs: a zoning scheme for the coastal zone, incorporating protected areas; legislation and policy guidelines; research and monitoring programmes; education and public awareness campaigns; measures for community participation; and a financial sustainability mechanism.