Integrated management councils: A conceptual model for ocean policy conflict management in Australia

Integrated management is a central theme of Australia's Oceans Policy (AOP). Improving integration across sectors and jurisdictions has been identified in a number of Australian initiatives in coastal and marine policy developed in the past decade. These initiatives include the Regional Marine Planning process under AOP undertaken in 2000–02 and commitments to a National Coastal Policy made in 2002. These initiatives have highlighted the need for institutional arrangements that address these two key dimensions of integration in the Australian marine environment. This paper reviews Australian initiatives in ocean and coastal policy and draws on lessons from Canadian experience to propose Integrated Management Councils as a ‘way forward’ for integrated and adaptive management focusing on the decentralization of power and community participation in the decision-making process.     

How robust is the environmental impact assessment process in South Australia? Behind the scenes of the Adelaide seawater desalination project

This work tests the robustness of policies and procedures designed to protect South Australia's marine environment through a case study of the Adelaide Desalination Plant—the most expensive (∼A$1.8 billion) infrastructure project in South Australia's history. Although this project has been subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)—the highest level of assessment in Australia—on inspection it appears that the current operating licence for the desalination brine discharge breaches Government approval conditions and ignores the collective expert scientific advice of the project's Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Hence, the EIA process in South Australia for this project is flawed. Improvements could be made to the South Australian system by including the requirements for operating licences as an integral part of the EIA.     

Marine bioregional plans and implementation issues: Australia's oceans policy process

Australia's Oceans Policy, released in 1998, established a new, national approach for ecosystem-based ocean management that proposed the integration of sectoral and jurisdictional interests. Implementation was to be achieved through innovative institutions delivering ecosystem based management through Regional Marine Plans, now referred to as marine bioregional plans that are legislatively grounded via the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth). This paper argues that the original focus of the implementation process has changed, reflecting a lack of jurisdictional integration and an environmental focus that prioritises marine protected area management. It examines where the oceans policy stands today and the policy gap in terms of the lofty aspirations of Australia's Oceans Policy and implementation efforts.     

印度洋-西太平洋海洋动物谱系地理演化格局

印度洋和西太平洋海域,拥有大量浅海大陆架、边缘海和岛屿,孕育了全球最丰富的初级生产力和渔业资源,尤其是作为该区域陆源物质输入、两大洋能量汇聚中心和生物多样性中心的东印度三角,在全球海洋生物分布和进化中扮演了重要角色。本文结合物理海洋和化学海洋环境,通过线粒体基因和核基因等分子标记研究结果,归纳分析了印度洋和西太平洋区域海洋动物谱系生物地理演化格局及其可能的成因。具体结果如下:(1)雷州半岛-海南岛、冰期暴露的台湾海峡和长江冲淡水等沿岸海区,阻碍了海洋动物在海区间的扩散,南海、东海和黄、渤海广布类群,多由一个星状辐射谱系组成,种群经历最近的数量扩张和区域扩散,而仅分布于南海的物种,一般具有多个深度分歧的遗传谱系,种群呈现出数量平衡状态,同一广布物种的南海和东海种群,因区域海洋环境差异,种群数量动态演化历史不同;(2)黑潮影响区的沿岸广布类群,黑潮海流促进了顺流扩散、限制了跨海流基因交流;(3)东印度三角区,存在"华莱士线"、"赫胥黎线"和"印度洋-太平洋线"等生物地理边界,该区域海洋或咸淡水溯河洄游动物多呈现为分布在生物地理边界两侧的2个遗传谱系;(4)西太平洋,存在与目前东西向大洋环流垂直的南北向跨赤道扩散和基因流现象,可能受到目前南北向随季节反转的沿岸流和深层海流影响;(5)印度洋东西海岸共享物种,受印度洋西向赤道流影响,海洋动物多由东印度洋向西印度洋跨洋扩散;(6)西印度洋广布物种/类群,呈现了两种不同种群分化格局——遗传同质均一种群和深度分化的遗传谱系;(7)东、北印度洋和南海区域共享大量物种,可能是海盆间双向扩散的结果;(8)海洋生物谱系生物地理进化史信息,可以用于地质事件、海洋环流和古气候重建。     

The conservation of seals in Irish waters: How research informs policy

Ireland's waters represent a valuable resource encompassing productive fishing grounds and important oil and gas reserves. As a species rich marine environment, Ireland's waters are also an important habitat for many species of marine mammal. Specifically, grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) are widespread in Irish coastal waters and at least 24 species of cetacean have been reported at sea. The coastal zone represents critical habitat for many of these species, in particular seals that use both terrestrial and aquatic coastal habitat and are vulnerable to habitat degradation. Increasing exploitation of marine resources has increased their exposure to a range of anthropogenic effects including pollution and habitat loss. As top predators seals interact with commercial fisheries both directly and indirectly for resources and conflicts arise. The relatively recent move towards ‘greener’ resource exploitation such as marine renewable energy does not come without negative consequences for marine mammals including seals, which are afforded protection under national and international conservation legislation, highlighting the difficulties faced by resource managers. The sustainable exploitation of resources whilst conserving biodiversity is a challenging task and effective management implementation depends on appropriate policy informed by reliable scientific data. This paper outlines the conservation needs of seals in Irish waters, reviews our current knowledge of these species in Irish water, provides a critical analysis of the existing legislative framework and describes how research outputs can inform present and future policy decisions.     

Success in heading north?: South Korea's master plan for Arctic policy

South Korea's seven governmental ministries and agency jointly announced a “Master Plan for Arctic Policy” on December 10, 2013. This represents the state's first comprehensive Arctic policy document. This paper aims to analyze the Korean government's Master Plan from both the legal and policy perspectives, as well as to make constructive comments for its improvement. Environmental changes, the need for scientific research, growing economic optimism about the Arctic region, and political leadership have led South Korea to head north. These four factors form the basis for the Master Plan. This document outlines Korea's vision (to be a reliable and responsible partner in this polar region), three policy goals, four strategies, and thirty-one projects connected to the Arctic region. The formation of the Master Plan has been an opportunity for South Korea to organize and compile all the various Arctic activities independently conducted by governmental ministries and agency. In order to improve South Korea's Arctic policy since the Master Plan, the author recommends that the nation prioritize its projects according to its needs and the feasibility of each project. Prudence is required in the drafting and implementation of Arctic policy to respect Arctic states' sovereignties and sovereign rights over the Arctic areas. Finally, strengthening cooperation with the Arctic states and at Arctic forums is indispensable. In particular, bilateral cooperation is essential for South Korea to perform economic activities such as the exploration for oil and gas.     

国际海上救援效率比较研究 ——以东海特定水域为例

为研究东海海域海上救援效率和国际协作的协调性,以国际救援为视角,基于ArcGIS构建了海事救援效率评价模型。根据巡逻船舶密度数据确定了救援船舶的概率分布,得出了救援船舶与遇险船舶的可能距离,同时考虑了风浪影响下遇险船舶的漂移以及巡逻船舶失速的情况,分别计算了常风向和次常风向下中国、日本和韩国在东海特定水域的海上救援效率。结果表明:以各国现有的巡逻船舶配备对研究区内漂移的遇险船舶展开救援时,常风向下先后抵达的顺序为韩国、日本和中国,驰援时间分别为5.14、8.18和9.67 h;次常风向下抵达的顺序为韩国、日本和中国,驰援时间分别为5.45、8.25和10.08 h;为提高我国的救援效率,需要在东海海域部署9～10艘巡逻船舶开展常态化巡逻。本文研究可为我国有关部门科学制定和完善海上救援方案,调整海上救援力量配备,进一步加强国际间的协调与合作提供参考。     

奠基海洋化学研究,助推海洋科学发展——中国科学院海洋研究所海洋化学研究70年

本文系统总结了中国科学院海洋研究所建所70年来,海洋化学研究的发展历程和主要科学贡献,在此基础上,提出了海洋化学的发展愿景。建国初期的中科院海洋研究所是我国海洋化学研究的主要奠基者和引领者,70年来一直是我国化学海洋学、海洋生物资源化学利用以及海洋腐蚀与防护等领域的中坚力量,为中国海洋化学的发展做出了不可替代的重大贡献。1950—1990年,系统获得了渤黄东海重要化学要素的分布特征,发现了黄东海溶解氧存在最大值系冬季保持而来;构建了大型海藻经济组分提取的系统化方案,奠定了世界最大规模海藻化学工业的基础;系统开拓了我国海洋腐蚀与防护领域的研究。1990—2020年,中科院海洋研究所的海洋化学研究全面与国际接轨,系统研究了中国近海化学要素特别是微痕量无机/有机组分的分布迁移转化特征及机制,提出了海洋生物地球化学研究的系统思路;研制成功褐藻多糖硫酸酯治疗肾衰新海洋药物,发现大量具有生物活性的海洋活性物质,在应用海洋化学领域也有重要进展。     

中国海域潮汐非调和常数的计算与分析

联合利用中国沿岸长期验潮站实测资料和全球海潮模型NAO.99b在中国海域的结果,进行潮汐非调和常数的计算.分别对渤海、黄海、东海和南海进行分析,结果表明,中国海域潮汐类型复杂,渤海、黄海、东海以半日潮性质为主,南海以日潮性质为主;渤海、南海平均大潮差多分布在0.42～2.09 m,平均小潮差分布在0.27～1.33 m,东海、黄海平均大潮差多分布在1.12～4.44 m,平均小潮差多分布在0.41～2.41 m;渤海、黄海平均大潮高潮位分布在0.48～1.77 m,东海在0.42～2.41 m,南海在0.21～1.35 m;渤海、东海以及南海北部浅海海域潮高日不等现象显著.     

Mangrove planning and management in New Zealand and South East Australia – A reflection on approaches

The mangrove Avicennia marina var. australasica occurs on the temperate coastlines of New Zealand's north island and New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia in South East Australia. Mangroves are increasing in area with seaward expansion in New Zealand and landward expansion in temperate Australia. Their expansion has been viewed as unnatural. With pressure from residential and coastal development, planning and management authorities in both countries are being exerted to allow for the removal and destruction of mangroves, partly for protecting and re-instating other impacted habitats such as saltmarsh and mudflats and partly to maintain recreational and amenity values of coastal communities. Estuary management planning is a useful tool that can integrate and balance policy directions for mangroves and other estuarine habitats in a strategic manner. Mangroves should not be considered as ‘bad’ in isolation but viewed as part of the mosaic of tidal habitats important for estuary function and health.     

海洋生态产品政策的经济效应: 提升供给效率与实现共同富裕——基于中国沿海省份的数据分析

为探讨海洋生态产品政策工具的经济效应,尤其是对提升其供给效率与实现共同富裕的叠加影响,本文在设计理论分析框架的基础上,基于中国沿海省、自治区、直辖市2009—2019年的数据分析,利用计量方法研究了共同富裕、海洋生态产品供给效率、海洋生态产品政策之间的作用机制和影响机理。结果显示:海洋生态产品政策可显著提升中国海洋生态产品供给效率,促进共同富裕;海洋生态产品政策在各区域的经济效应显著度呈东海-环渤海-南海依次递减的情况;产业结构、人均受教育年限、人口总数、人均存款、人均贷款、人均财政支出、人均财政收入、少数民族地区情况等因素均会对海洋生态产品政策的经济效应产生影响。提出建议:明确优化提升海洋生态产品供给效率和促进实现共同富裕的政策目标;研究有利于优化提升海洋生态产品供给效率和促进实现共同富裕的政策工具;做好区域海洋生态产品政策的构建与完善工作。     

Establishment and closure of the directed Florida whiting (Menticirrhus americanus) fishery and implications for North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) conservation and management

Today, ocean and coastal marine resource management is extremely complex. Marine resource managers are charged with conserving and managing many diverse species. Southern kingfish (Menticirrhus americanus), commonly known as whiting, are found from southern New England to Florida. During the fall through winter, western North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) are primarily found in the coastal nearshore waters off South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, overlapping the whiting's range and habitat.     

How terrestrial management concepts have led to unrealistic expectations of marine protected areas

Terrestrial reserves and national parks have taken many forms and they continue to be directed toward variable and often imprecisely defined outcomes. A prominent contemporary focus is to pursue the continuance of biodiversity. To this aim the concept of protecting comprehensive, effectively managed and representative areas from overt development, such as urban sprawl and agriculture, has been globally adopted. Within Australia ‘effectively managed’, has been replaced by ‘adequate’, a poorly defined term which is interpreted optimistically and combined with ‘comprehensive’ and ‘representative’ to create the CAR principle. This principle was first developed within the Australian forestry sector to guide management in addressing a very specific threat to a clearly identified component of biodiversity in limited and well defined areas; the preservation of declining stands of some tree species within limited old growth forests. Even though the CAR principle is central to Australia's process of developing a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) its relevance to marine systems has not been demonstrated. Its efficacy for the conservation of marine environments is questioned. The uncritical transposition of terrestrial management paradigms, including the CAR principle, to the marine realm has misled marine management. It is argued that disproportionate commitment to terrestrial principles, including CAR, and unjustified advocacy for MPAs generally have biased public perception and management efforts to the detriment of effective marine conservation and sustainable use of marine resources.     

The Australian continental shelf: Has Australia's high-latitude diplomacy paid off?’

The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf has granted Australia extended continental shelf areas around two of its sub-Antarctic island groups, and these extend into the Antarctic Treaty area. The overlap potentially raises conflict between Australian and Antarctic interests. Australia's submission included and expressly excluded Antarctic data and its high-latitude diplomacy paid off, but its next steps will be crucial to gaining acceptance by other Antarctic Treaty parties. It is likely that any resource exploitation will stop at the fence (60° South) during the life of the Treaty.     

Distribution of the burden of fisheries regulations in Europe: The north/south divide

The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is a priority area of the European Union's Better Regulation agenda. Understanding the spatial variation in the application of the policy and the reasons behind these differences would provide insights into policy making in different socioeconomic and cultural settings that will assist in better regulation. The CFP aqcuis (the body of European Union law accumulated thus far) was analysed by creating a database composed of pre-defined elements from each obligation. Distinct differences are apparent in the ‘burden’ imposed by regulations in the Northern and Southern waters. However, a combination of a timeline of fish landings and the accumulation of the CFP regulations shows that despite the increase in the number of regulations this has not led to the anticipated reduction in landings. Historical, biological and geopolitical differences between the two major marine regions of the EU are discussed in terms of the impact they have had on the formation of the different fisheries management models in the different regions. Finally, the elements forming these models are discussed in terms of successes and failures in the context of the 2012 CFP reform.     

Preliminary study on concentrations and size distribution of marine aerosols over the East China Sea

In summer and winter, 1987,and in spring and autumn, 1988, the concentrations and size distribution of marine aerosols were measured over the East China Sea and the South Japan Sea. This paper deals with the study on the seasonal variation of the marine aerosols with the meteorological parameters, the differences and the relations between the marine and continental aerosols. The results show that the marine aerosol concentrations and size distribution over the East China Sea have distinct seasonal change characteristics, which may be attributed to the East Asian atmospheric circulation. The size distribution is discussed by using a three-parameter size distribution model.     

Gene flow and demographic history of the mangrove crab Neosarmatium meinerti: A case study from the western Indian Ocean

Most marine organisms are characterized by at least one planktonic phase during their life history, potentially allowing interconnection of populations separated by several hundred kilometers. For many years, the idea that marine species are genetically homogenous throughout their range of distribution, due to passive larval transport, has been a paradigm. Nowadays, a growing number of studies underline the existence of boundaries in the marine realm and highlight how larval dispersal is a complex process depending on biotic as well as abiotic factors. Marine fragmented habitats, such as atolls, mangroves and estuaries, are optimal systems for investigating the marine dispersion process under a metapopulation approach, since populations can be geographically defined a priori as opposed to those occupying open marine environments. Within this frame, the present paper investigates the population genetic structure and the demographic history of the mangrove crab Neosarmatium meinerti within the western Indian Ocean by partial sequences of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase subunit I. A total of 167 specimens were sampled from six mangrove sites distributed along the East African coast, from Kenya to South Africa, also including a mangrove forest located on Mahé Island, Seychelles. A sharp genetic break between the mainland and the Seychelles is recorded, revealing the existence of two historically distinct groups that can be defined as independent evolutionary units. Gene flow along the East African coast appears to be high enough to form a single metapopulation, probably by means of stepping stone populations. Otherwise, this mainland metapopulation is currently under expansion through a gradual moving front from the subtropical toward the equatorial populations.     

Australian offshore natural hydrocarbon seepage studies,a review and re-evaluation

Surprisingly few natural hydrocarbon seeps have been identified in Australia's offshore basins despite studies spanning thirty years. Early studies of natural hydrocarbon seepage around the Australian margin were generally based on the geochemical analysis of stranded bitumens, water column geochemical ‘sniffer’ sampling, synthetic aperture radar or airborne laser fluorosensor. Later studies involved the integration of these remote sensing and geochemical techniques with multi-channel and shallow seismic. A review of these earlier studies indicates that many seepage interpretations need to be re-evaluated and that previous data sets, when placed in a global context, often represent normal background hydrocarbon levels. Low Recent burial and subsidence rates are not favourable for high rates of seepage. There are also difficulties in proving seepage on high energy, shallow carbonate shelves, where seabed features may be rapidly re-worked and modern marine signatures are overprinted on authigenic seep carbonates. Thus, the relatively few sites of proven natural hydrocarbon seepage in Australia's offshore sedimentary basins can be reconciled relative to their geological occurrences and the dominantly passive margin setting. Active thermogenic methane seepage on the Yampi Shelf, the only proven documented occurrence in Australia, is driven by deposition of a thick Late Tertiary carbonate succession and Late Miocene tectonic reactivation. Therefore, to increase the success of detecting and correctly interpreting natural hydrocarbon seepage, data need to be analysed and integrated within the context of the local geological setting, and with an understanding of what is observed globally.     

Effective governance of a large and complex cross-jurisdictional marine protected area: Australia's Great Barrier Reef

Australia's Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef ecosystem on earth. The governance of such a large and iconic area is complex due to the overlapping federal and state (Queensland) jurisdictions. Since 1975 this globally significant area has been protected by pioneering federal legislation which enabled the ‘reasonable use’ of natural resources to co-exist with conservation, thus introducing the concept of a multiple-use marine park. In 1981 the Great Barrier Reef was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Area. Today a federal multiple-use Marine Park covers 99% of the Great Barrier Reef Region and World Heritage Area, with the remaining areas under state jurisdiction. A close working partnership between the federal and state governments has evolved over 37 years and includes complementary legislation, joint field management and joint permits. In the face of increasing pressures, management of the Great Barrier Reef continues to be effective for a range of reasons, including a sound governance/legislative framework together with complementary federal/state legislation; integrated management with relevant federal and state agencies; and the application of ecosystem-based management principles both inside and outside the area of the marine park's jurisdiction. This integrated and comprehensive management model is widely regarded as effective by marine and coastal managers around the world.     

Sunken WWII shipwrecks of the Pacific and East Asia: The need for regional collaboration to address the potential marine pollution threat

Oil, chemicals and unexploded ordinances onboard sunken World War II (WWII) warships and merchant vessels pose a real and significant marine pollution risk to the nations of the Pacific and East Asia. A recent project of the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP), through its Pacific Ocean Pollution Prevention Program, has highlighted the extent of the risk posed by vessels lost in WWII to Member Governments. Some of these vessels have already begun to leak fuel oil and cargo into the fragile environment of the Pacific atolls. The oil spills from the oil tanker USS Mississinewa sunk in Ulithi Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia, will be used as an example of the problems associated with WWII wrecks in the region.A Regional WWII Wreck Strategy was formulated and endorsed by the Members of SPREP, and a preliminary risk assessment of WWII shipwrecks was carried out by the program, as part of this exercise. This led to the development of a Geographic Information System (GIS) database, which details the types of ships, the tonnage and location of over 3800 vessels lost in the Pacific and East Asia. Although not complete, the Pacific WWII Shipwreck Database totals over 13 million tons of sunken vessels—ranging from aircraft carriers to battleships and including over 330 tankers and oilers.As a major proportion of vessels lost during WWII rest in the East Asian–Pacific sea area, close collaboration needs to be established between the regional environmental bodies and their affected Member Governments to address the scale of marine pollution risk. Complex maritime jurisdictional issues, along with overlapping claims on Economic Exclusion Zones and the interrelationships of the marine environments in the region, also underscore the need to address the issue on a multilateral basis.This paper aims to highlight the extent of the risks posed by sunken WWII vessels to fisheries, marine and coastal resources of the Pacific and East Asian regions, as well as the issues of ownership and responsibility for the WWII shipwrecks of the Pacific.