The scientific value of scientific whaling

Scientific whaling has polarized opinion for decades, and its scientific value has been intensely debated. Here, the output of scientific whaling programs is examined by comparing it to the scientific output pertaining to whales of countries that do not practice scientific whaling. Between 1986 and 2013, whaling and non-whaling countries produced, on average, similar total numbers of publications that were directly relevant to the goals of the scientific whaling permits issued by the International Whaling Commission (IWC), and similar numbers of papers that were relevant to whale ecology and conservation but not directly related to IWC goals. Half of the scientific productivity of scientific whaling countries resulted from non-lethal data collection. One-third of publications by whaling countries were published in peer-reviewed outlets, compared to twice as many for non-whaling countries. Publications by whaling countries were cited ~4 times less often than those of non-whaling countries, with no evidence of citation discrimination against whaling countries since the citation rates of papers that did and did not use lethal sampling were similar. These academic criteria suggest that although the overall volume of science produced by scientific whaling countries is similar to that of non-whaling countries, the quality of the science is not. Arguably, academic criteria are not the best way to assess the usefulness of science for management and conservation, but demonstrating links between the science produced by scientific whaling, its integration in management plans and actions, and shifts towards sustainable exploitation or recovery of whale populations is challenging.     

An economic history and analysis of pelagic whaling

Following the introduction of sea-going factory vessels by Norwegian whalers in the 1926 season, the international whaling industry underwent a large expansion which ultimately resulted in depletion of many valuable stocks of whales. Attempts at conservation under the auspices of the International Whaling Commission met with limited but growing success, until a new management policy was adopted in 1975. By 1980 the killing of most species of baleen whales had been prohibited. The authors review the economic history of pelagic whaling during this period, and present a corresponding economic analysis. A brief survey of mathematical models of the whaling industry is given in the Appendix.     

The whaling issue: Conservation,confusion, and casuistry

Morishita's “multiple analysis” of the whaling issue [Morishita J. Multiple analysis of the whaling issue: Understanding the dispute by a matrix. Marine Policy 2006;30:802–8] is essentially a restatement of the Government of Japan's whaling policy, which confuses the issue through selective use of data, unsubstantiated facts, and the vilification of opposing perspectives. Here, we deconstruct the major problems with Morishita's article and provide an alternative view of the whaling dispute. For many people in this debate, the issue is not that some whales are not abundant, but that the whaling industry cannot be trusted to regulate itself or to honestly assess the status of potentially exploitable populations. This suspicion has its origin in Japan's poor use of science, its often implausible stock assessments, its insistence that culling is an appropriate way to manage marine mammal populations, and its relatively recent falsification of whaling and fisheries catch data combined with a refusal to accept true transparency in catch and market monitoring. Japanese policy on whaling cannot be viewed in isolation, but is part of a larger framework involving a perceived right to secure unlimited access to global marine resources. Whaling is inextricably tied to the international fisheries agreements on which Japan is strongly dependent; thus, concessions made at the IWC would have potentially serious ramifications in other fora.     

Cooperation and unregulated fishing: interactions between customary international law,and the European Union IUU fishing regulation

The extent to which flag States are bound by the conservation rules of regional fishery management organisations is an important question in the quest to reduce unregulated fishing. The European Union implemented a trade suspension against Cambodia under Council Regulation 1005/2008, in response to unregulated fishing by Cambodian vessels in high seas areas managed by regional fishery management organisations. Limitations in the arguments underpinning the decision evidence the flaws of unregulated fishing as a legal concept, underlining the need for it to be appropriately interpreted and contextualised in the international legal framework. Clarity on the differences between conventional and customary sources of international legal obligation, and their implications for State consent, should guide the implementation of the Regulation to maximise the normative potential of resulting practices.     

The bottom line: An investigation of the economic,cultural and social costs of high seas industrial longline fishing in the Pacific and the benefits of conservation

High sea industrial longline fishing can be understood as a case study of the cultural, economic, environmental and social impacts of unsustainable fishing technology. While much attention has been attributed to the impact of industrial longlines on the marine ecosystem, little is known about the impact of longline fishing on local food security, employment, cultural belief systems and traditions, revenue generation from marine tourism and climate change. New data demonstrate that the contributions of Marine Protected Areas, marine tourism and recreational fishing to local coastal economies dwarf the contributions of longline fishing. When combined with the impact of overfishing on coastal fishing communities and fish consumers, policies promoting sustainable fisheries must be expanded to take these other factors into account along with issues of biodiversity.     

The bottom line: An investigation of the economic, cultural and social costs of industrial longline fishing in the Pacific and the benefits of sustainable use marine protected areas

Industrial longline fishing can be understood as a case study of the cultural, economic, environmental and social impacts of unsustainable fishing technology. While much attention has been attributed to the impact of industrial longlines on the marine ecosystem, little is known about the impact of longline fishing on local food security, employment, cultural belief systems and traditions, revenue generation from marine tourism and climate change. New data demonstrate that the contributions of Marine Protected Areas, marine tourism and recreational fishing to local coastal economies dwarf the contributions of longline fishing. When combined with the impact of overfishing on coastal fishing communities and fish consumers, policies promoting sustainable fisheries must be expanded to take these other factors into account along with issues of biodiversity.     

The influence of economic factors in the change of fishing strategies of anchored FAD fishers in the face of declining catch,General Santos City,Philippines

Decline in tuna fish stocks due to weak enforcement of regulations on fishing effort poses a challenge to the sustainability of tuna fishery. Intervention programs to address this problem require an understanding of the operational behaviour of the fishers and how various socioeconomic factors may impact fishers’ decisions to continue or discontinue their fishing efforts. A semi-structured interview questionnaire was developed to find whether fishers are willing to keep, change their fishing strategies or exit the fishery if their regular catch will decline by half. Boat captains, assistant boat captains and crew from General Santos City, Lupon, Mati City and Governor Generoso in the Philippines (n=293) were purposively selected for interviews. Results show that fishers from General Santos City with ancillary industries and Lupon with fewer economic development are more willing to adapt or change their fishing strategies. The catch value or price was found to have a strong influence on the likelihood that anchored FAD tuna fishers will adapt or change their fishing strategy when their catches decline. Fishers whose catch fetched a price of PhP 151.00 (US$ 3.48) and above Php 200 (US$ 4.61) have 80% probability to change their fishing strategy. The proportion of catch sold also had a high influence on the decisions to adapt in the fishery with fishers selling 36% and 73% of their catches have 100% and 70% probability to adapt. The results suggest a reluctance to exit the fisheries even when tuna fishing is no longer economically viable, fishers opt to adapt.     

An economic analysis of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing: Key drivers and possible solutions

The fight against illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities has recently become a high priority in the international fisheries management agenda. While a number of academic contributions have sought to improve the understanding of the problem, most remain limited in scope. To help policy makers obtain a more comprehensive picture of the situation, the OECD Committee for Fisheries recently completed a study addressing the full economic dimensions of IUU fishing in an integrated manner. This paper presents the analytical framework developed by the OECD as well as some of the key results of the study regarding the causes of and the potential solutions to this widespread problem.     

Sourcing seafood for the three major markets: The EU,Japan and the USA

This paper describes the marine fish and invertebrate consumption in three of the world’s major seafood markets (the EU, Japan and the USA) using a series of global maps indicating the likely origin of the seafood consumed by each market. These maps display a high level of dependence by these markets on foreign sources as the serial depletion of local fisheries resources forced the fleets in search for new seafood supplies well beyond their domestic waters. The acquisition of foreign (and high seas) seafood by these markets is conducted through two channels: by dispatching distant water fishing fleets that directly exploit foreign stocks; and by importing catch landed elsewhere by local fleets. The results also demonstrate that each of the three major markets occupies a zone of influence within which it is dominant.     

Commercial fisheries closures in marine protected areas on Canada’s Pacific coast: The exception,not the rule

No-take marine protected areas (MPAs), where all fishing is prohibited, have been shown to provide benefits that include greater productivity of fish stocks due to increased densities, average sizes, and reproductive output. A critical component of this success is the effective management of MPAs to ensure that only those activities deemed permissible, are allowed to occur. As of 2008, 161 MPAs had been designated on the Pacific coast of Canada by federal, provincial or municipal authorities. The objective of this study was to discover how many of these MPAs are intended to provide full protection to habitats and species from commercial fishing and whether management measures were put in place to actualize this conservation intent. The comprehensive spatial dataset was built illustrating commercial fisheries closures and this was overlaid with MPA locations in a GIS. The majority of MPAs were designated as IUCN Strict Nature Reserve (Type Ia), Wilderness Area (Type Ib), and National Park (Type II) marine reserves, which are intended to be free from exploitation. It was found that 160 of the 161 MPAs are open to some commercial harvesting within their bounds. One small municipal MPA and portions of three other MPAs are not open to commercial harvesting. The incongruence between management intent and fisheries permitted suggests a management failure between designation of MPAs and implementation of fisheries management regulations.     

Micro-economic drivers of profitability in an ITQ-managed fishery: An analysis of the Queensland Coral Reef Fin-Fish Fishery

An economic survey of the commercial operators currently active in the Queensland Coral Reef Fin-Fish Fishery has been carried out, as part of a research project aimed at evaluating alternative management options for this fishery. This paper presents the background analysis used as a basis to develop the sampling design for this survey. The background analysis focuses on activity patterns of the fleet based on effort and catch information, as well as patterns of quota ownership. Based on this information, a fishing business profile describing the micro-economic structure of fishing operations is developed. This profile, in conjunction with the qualitative information gained in undertaking the economic surveys, allows preliminary understanding of the key drivers of profitability in the CRFFF, and possible impacts of external factors on fishing operations.     

Whitefish wars: Pangasius, politics and consumer confusion in Europe

Rapid growth in production of the farmed Vietnamese whitefish pangasius and its trade with the European Union has provoked criticism of the fish's environmental, social and safety credentials by actors including WWF and Members of the European Parliament and associated negative media coverage. This paper reviews the range of claims communicated about pangasius (identified as a form of mass mediated risk governance), in light of scientific evidence and analysis of data from the EU's Rapid Alert System for Food and Feeds food safety notification system for imported seafood. This analysis shows pangasius to be generally safe, environmentally benign and beneficial for actors along the international value chains that characterise the trade. The case is made that increasingly politicised debates in Europe around risk and uncertainty are potentially counterproductive for EU seafood security and European aquaculture industry, and that the trade in pangasius can contribute to sustainable seafood consumption in a number of ways. Transparent evidence-based assessment and systems for communicating complex issues of risk for products such as pangasius are required in order to support continuance of fair and mutually beneficial trade.     

Restructuring the Chinese seafood industry,global challenges and policy implications

This article discusses how the Chinese seafood industry will affect the rest of the world's fishing industries. The analysis is based on theories of economic comparative advantage, the international division of labour and the internationalization process related to trade activities. Given the increasing domestic demand for fish in China, the limited availability of domestic fish stocks and less success for farmed marine fish in China are considered some of the most important factors in restricting the growth in Chinese seafood production. The necessity of raw fish imports into China may increase pressure on global fish stocks and international fish prices, resulting in tighter supplies worldwide and higher seafood prices for the Chinese. Sustainable fish harvests and trade require stronger fishery management, in particular in the relations between seafood companies and governments along the entire international value chain supplying China. Such structural changes may allow new value-added possibilities for fish farming and the upgrading of certain fish species for human consumption that were previously utilized purely for fish feed.     

Trade measures and the combat of IUU fishing: Institutional interplay and effective governance in the Northeast Atlantic

The use of trade measures to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Northeast Atlantic has evolved from unilateral denial of the landing of fish taken outside international quota arrangements to a multilateral Scheme of Control and Enforcement under the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC). International trade rules have not constrained this development, mostly due to successful management of the interplay between international resource management and trade regimes. States protect resource management objectives from such constraint by inserting clauses that establish a normative hierarchy, or they employ various means for adapting IUU measures to the ‘environmental window’ of the global trade regime. The fact that regional states have introduced trade restrictions only when non-restrictive or less restrictive measures have failed enhances such compatibility, as do the gradual shift from unilateral to multilateral measures and the rise in transparency, openness and target-state involvement. None of those features reduces the effectiveness of regional trade measures; they minimize tension with trade commitments and largely strengthen their clout in the struggle to combat IUU fishing in the Northeast Atlantic.